(4) Political authority in action (Russification)

The problem posed by ethnic minorities

- Tsarist Russia was inhabited by over 100 different ethnic groups.
- Slavs, Ukraine and Belorussia made up 2/3 of population
- The rest were a mixture of different nationalities, languages, religions and cultural traditions.

national ideology

A belief in the strength of one's own country, language and traditions (came after the defeat of Napoleon who had tried to extend French influence)
This happened along side an increase in Chauvinism (exaggerated or aggressive patriotism)

example of ethnic minorities breaking away from the empire

1830 Polish nationalism brought a rebellion
1840s Finnish language pressure group set up
1840s local language newspapers founded in Baltic regions

Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius

Group in Ukraine that provoked a national consciousness that sought to separate Ukrainian Slavs from their Russian counterparts.

Consequence of Imperial expansion in Asia during second half of 19th century

Muslim population increased to 10 million by 1900

Alexander II vs Polish rebellion 1863

-More concerned with control than with racial superiority.
-He reacted swiftly and strongly to the Polish rebellion in 1863, where 200,000 Poles had created an underground National Government, where they waged a form of guerrilla warfare (e.g ambushes). They were soundly crushed in 1864 with the help of Duke Konstantin

Evidence that Alexander used concessions to keep control of ethnic minorities?

Decrees in 1864 and 1875 meant Latvians and Estonians were allowed to revert to Lutheranism, where previously Orthodoxy had been demanded
Finns were allowed their own 'diet' (parliament)

How did this change towards the end of his reign? Examples?

- Growing intolerance of national differences on part of the ministers and administrators who wanted to reinforce the tsarist regime.
- Prohibition on the use of Ukrainian in publications or performances in 1876.
-The more hostile attitude encouraged a more aggressive campaign under Alexander III

Unification of Germany 1871

Bismarck used his policy of "blood and iron" to unite the German states under Prussian rule

Why did this Unification scare Russia?

It was an industrial and military powerhouse which had a dislike for Alexander II

Black Hundreds

unofficial groups that formed to resist the 1905 revolution by attacking Jews and revolutionaries. Black Hundreds supported the Czar.

Alexander II's Russification was effective (3)

- Shut down certain uprisings such as in Poland
- increased detachment of ethnic minorities (newspapers) so Russification was required
- He was not as harsh on minority groups which meant there was not a huge increase in opposition unlike Alexander III
- Black Hundreds supported the regime

Alexander II's Russification was ineffective (religion)

- still couldn't supress all activity
- Finns were allowed their own 'diet' (parliament) (reduced control of autocracy)
- Decrees in 1864 and 1875 meant Latvians and Estonians were allowed to revert to Lutheranism, where previously Orthodoxy had been demanded (religion not imposed despite it being integral to uphold the regime (divine right of kings)

Cultural russification (Alexander III)

Alexander III and his ministers, particularly POBEDONOSTSEV engaged in a policy of 'cultural russification' this sought to merge the Tsar's subjects into a single nation with a feeling of shared identity

1885 Law

Russian language had to be used everywhere in this empire

Pobedonostev's writings

His writings on politics, law, art, and culture emphasized the positive element of the spiritual and secular unification of Russia with the acceptance of Christianity, while simultaneously condemning the Jewish population

Alexander III's policies against Finland (4) Im finished with my post and money and Diet

- the Diet was reorganised in 1892 to weaken its political interest
- Russian language was increasingly demanded
- Independent postal service abolished
- Russian coinage replaced local currency

Alexander III's policies against Poland (5)

- Poland National Bank closed in 1885
- schools and universities taught all subjects except the Polish language (They clearly emphasise Russian language)
- practice of religion had to be in Russian
- Polish literature had to be studied in a Russian translation
- Administration of Poland was also changed to curb any independence

Alexander III's treatment of loyal baltic germans (until this point had special protection of AIII's predecessors)

- Between 1885-89 Russian had to be used in all state offices, elementary and secondary schools, the police force and judicial system.
- University of Dorpar 'russified' and became Iurev University

Alexander III's policies against Ukraine (3) (conscripts)

- laws limited the use of Ukranian language (1883,84)
- all theatres in Ukranian provinces were closed
- conscripts from national areas were disperesed to prevent national groupings developing in the army (where everyone had to speak Russian)

Alexander III's policies against eastern provinces (lola)

- mercilessely supressed uprisings of ethnic peoples
- Guriya 1892, Armenia 1886, Tashkent 1892

Why did some people switch to the Orthodox faith?

- there were special laws benefiting those of this faith
- e.g 37,000 Lutherans converted to Orthodoxy in order to take advantage of the special measures of support

All Russian Orthodox Missionary Society purpose

- In Asia
-Convert all non-orthodox peoples (Heathans and Muslims)

Alexander III's response to non-orthodox areas (Poland, after 1883)

- In poland, catholic monasteries were closed down, Catholic priests lost all influence and incentives were provided for non-cathlics to settle in this area.
- From 1883, members of non-Orthodox Churches not allowed to build new places of worship or wear religious dress except within their meeting place, or spread any propaganda.
- Any attempt to convert a member of the Orthodox Church -> exile to Siberia

Results of Russification - cases of disturbances

-June 1888, there were 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61 of Russia's 92 provinces and districts.
-Nevertheless, trouble was swiftly curbed as in 51 of the cases, the military were employed.

Results of Russification - wealthy Finns, Poles and Baltic Germans

West of the empire saw constant petitions for the Tsar for more liberties
secret publication of local language books continued

justification of Alexander III's Russification (4)

- it would allow for a speed up of economic modernisation
- Germany's growing strength after 1870 threatened Russia with the posibility of Germanisation (some schools in Poland were being forced to use German)
- Russification policies reinforced a strong central administration (eg weakening of Finnish diet), which
was necessary for modernisation and economic unity - strengthening Russia
- Schooling was transferred from the Russian Orthodox Church to the Zemstva in 1863

Argument against Alexander III's Russification (3)

- Peter Waldron - Russification 'intensified the national feeling among the non-Russians of the Empire'.
- Did not end uprisings
- Lost support of some loyal supporters e.g Loyal German Baltics
- peasants tend to identify with a village or at most a
region, but seldom with a "nation."

Pale of Settlement

Restricted district that Jews in Russia were required to live in. Also known as 'The Pale.' - comprised around 20% of European Russia
5 million Jews in Russia, most lived in this area

Why was there an increase in anti-Semitism under Alexander II?

- anti-Semitism had already existed within society with many hating jews because of the teachings of the Orthodox Church and because of their money-lendings and personal riches.
- Alexander II allowed the wealthier jews to live elsewhere UNTIL THE POLISH REVOLT
- He withdrew his concessions and reduced the participation of Jews in town government -> more anti-semitism

Pobedonostsev quotes on anti-sentimism (Under Alexander III) (2)

'Beat the Yids - Save Russia'
'One third should emigrate, one third die, and one third assimilate'

Why was Alexander III anti-semetimitic

- he was anti-semetic based on religious grounds
- He had political concerns - the right-wing Russian press had helped encourage the belief that Jews had orchastrated Alexander II's assasination.
- Real fear of Jewish involvement in the growing opposition movements

The Jewish Pogroms of 1881-84

-Targeted Jewish concentrated areas such as the Pale.
-Anti-Jewish pogroms broke out in April 1881 in Ukraine.
-The immediate cause is unknown, but it could have been business competition or encouragement from the Okhrana using the link to the assassination of AII.

How did the government react?

-Governing authorities did little to stop the violence.
-They were slow to act, and the 'Holy Leagues' organisation, supported by Pobedonostov, helped coordinate the early attacks, but this was banned from 1882.

Where did these riots spread to

-The riots spread through Ukraine e.g. Kiev, Odessa and into Warsaw, causing many Jews to flee across the boarder into Western Europe.
-16 major cities were affected, with property burned, shops and businesses destroyed and incidents of murder.

Laws of 1882- May Laws and Army Laws

- Condemned the Jews to living in ghettoes in cities and towns.
- Separate decree decreased the number of Jewish Doctors in the Russian army (doctors possessed the rights of army officers which was unattainable for Jews)
-These laws were supposed to be temporary but were constantly revised and tightened.

examples of these laws (2)

Jews forbidden to settle outside cities and towns of less than 10,000 people
Jews are forbidden to do business on Sundays and Christian holidays

Anti-Semetic legislation 1882-1894

1882 - May Laws and Army Law
1886 - Jews may only sell alcohol from their own homes
1887 - Number of Jews admitted to schools and universities is regulated by quotas. 10% within the Pale, 5% outside the pale
1891 - Non-Christians forbidden from buying property in certain provinces
1892- Jews banned from taking part in local elections
1893 - It is illegal for jews to adopt a 'christian' name

Impact of anti-semetism, why and how many were forced out

- Many jews left the country (some out of own free-will, others expelled e.g from Kiev in 1886)
- 10,000 Jewish Artisans expelled from Moscow in the winter of 91-92
- Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich (Alexander III's brother and Governor-General in 1892) forced 20,000 Jews from the city during Passover and closed down a newly built synagogue

Anti-semetism was effective in strengthening the Russian Empire

- The belief that Jews had assassinated Alexander II meant it was necessary to suppress Jews.
- The Anti-semetism was a propagandist move which appealed to conservative peasants/right wing (if nothing was done about Jews they may have revolted too)

Anti-s was ineffective in strengthening the Russian Empire (3)

- policies created insecurity; brought popular disturbances in ethnic areas and pogroms caused disruption to local economies (The Jews that left were often Wealthy)
- Jews removed from important professions where they could serve the community
- Jews that remained in Russia turned towards revolutionary groups, in particular Marxist Socialist Organisations (1917 Revolution?)
- 1917 revolution contained a disproportionate number of Jews, including Trotsky, Martov, Zinoviev and Litvinov