social theory

sociology

the study of human groups

canon

the set of foundational theorists and texts considered essential in sociology (e.g. marx, durkheim, weber)

conceptual framework

the system of ideas and concepts used to analyze and explain social phenomena

concepts

abstract ideas or categories used to understand society (e.g., class, gender, power)

scientific theory

system of generalized statements, theories or propositions about ideas, the purpose is to explain and/or predict

sociological theory

a set of ideas that explain how society operates, how social order is maintained, and how change occurs.

classical theory

Foundational sociological theories from the 19th and early 20th centuries (e.g., Marx, Durkheim, Weber)

contemporary theory

Modern developments that build on or challenge classical theory (e.g., feminist theory, postcolonial theory).

social structures

Stable patterns of relationships and institutions that organize society (e.g., family, economy, education).

culture

Shared beliefs, values, norms, and symbols that shape behavior and meaning.

agency

The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own choices.

macro-sociology

The study of large-scale social systems, institutions, and structures.

micro-sociology

The study of small-scale interactions and everyday behavior.

pluralistic

Characterized by diversity and coexistence of different groups, beliefs, and values in society.

enlightenment

18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights.

inalienable rights

Fundamental human rights that cannot be taken away (e.g., life, liberty, equality).

democracy

System of government based on participation, equality, and representation.

rationality

The use of logic and reason to make decisions and organize society.

reason and emancipatory knowledge

Knowledge used to liberate people from oppression through understanding and critical thinking.

scientific reasoning

Using evidence, observation, and logic to develop knowledge.

empiricism

Knowledge gained from direct observation and experience.

objectivity

Seeking neutrality and avoiding bias in sociological research.

positivist

Belief that social phenomena can be studied using scientific methods and empirical data.

Interpretive Understanding (Verstehen)

Understanding social behavior by interpreting the meanings individuals give to their actions.

Historical Forces That Shaped Sociology

Industrialization, urbanization, capitalism, secularization, and political revolutions.

morality

Shared beliefs and values that regulate behavior and maintain social order.

functionalism

Theory that sees society as a system of interrelated parts working together for stability.

interdependence

The way individuals and institutions rely on each other to function in society.

social bonds

bonds that unite members of society

mechancial solidarity

found in traditional societies, based on shared beliefs and similiarities among individuals

organic solidarity

found in modern societies, based on specialization, divison of labor, and interdependence

social integration

The degree to which people are connected and feel part of a community.

Methodological Contributions

Durkheim emphasized studying social facts objectively and scientifically.

collective conscience

The shared moral beliefs and values that bind a community together.

contract

agreement or social arrangement that organizes relations between individuals (seen differently than in economics).

division of labor

The specialization of work tasks that increases efficiency and interdependence.

objectivity

Sociologists must study social phenomena without personal bias.

social facts

Social forces external to individuals that shape behavior (e.g., laws, norms).

sui generis reality

Society exists as its own unique reality, independent of individual actions.

inequality

unequal distribution of wealth, power, and resources

historical materialism

Theory that material conditions (economy, production) shape society and history.

mode of production

The economic system (e.g., feudalism, capitalism) that organizes production and social relations.

means of production

Physical and non-human resources used to produce goods (e.g., factories, land).

class relations

The relationships between groups defined by their position in the economic system.

conflict theory

Society is shaped by conflict between classes over resources and power.

capitalism

Economic system based on private ownership and pursuit of profit.

capital

Wealth used to produce more wealth.

private property

Ownership of resources by individuals or corporations rather than the community.

profit

Financial gain from production after costs are subtracted.

surplus value

The difference between the value workers produce and the wages they are paid.

use value

The usefulness of a commodity.

exchange value

The market value of a commodity when traded.

bourgeoisie

The capitalist class that owns the means of production.

proletariat

The working class that sells its labor for wages.

division of labor

Specialization of tasks that can lead to alienation in capitalism.

Commodification of Labor Power

Treating human labor as a commodity that can be bought and sold.

exploitation

Taking value from workers' labor without fair compensation.

class consciousness

Awareness of one's social class and collective interests.

alienated labor

When workers become disconnected from their work, products, and human potential.

alienation of product

Workers don't own or control what they make.

alienation within the production process

Work becomes repetitive and meaningless.

Alienation from Species-Being

Loss of creativity and self-expression inherent to human nature.

Alienation from One Another

Competition replaces cooperation among workers.

economic base

The economic foundation (mode and relations of production) of society.

superstructure

The cultural, political, and ideological systems built upon the economic base.

ruling ideas

The ideas of the ruling class that dominate society.

ruling class

The group that controls economic resources and political power.

ideology

A system of beliefs that justifies and maintains social inequalities.

fetish of commodities

Treating goods as if they have intrinsic value independent of human labor.

false consciousness

Misunderstanding one's real class interests due to dominant ideology.

communism

A classless society where means of production are shared collectively.

objectification

The process of turning human activity or labor into material objects.

standpoint of the proletariat

The idea that the working class can see society more clearly because of their oppressed position

global color line

The worldwide division of power and privilege based on race.

role of subjectivity

Recognizing the importance of lived experience in understanding racial inequality.

veil

symbol of racial separation and the limited visibility of Black experiences to white society.

race

A socially constructed category used to justify inequality and domination.

empire and colonialism

Systems of domination where European powers exploited non-European peoples and lands.

class

Economic and social position related to wealth and labor.

wages of whiteness

Psychological and social advantages that white workers receive, even without material benefit.

racialized capitalism

The intertwining of racial hierarchy and capitalist exploitation.

racialized modernity

Modern societies shaped by both progress and racial domination.

du boisian global sociology

Approach linking race, class, and colonialism as global systems.

methodological contributions

Mixed methods (history, statistics, narrative) and focus on the lived experience of race.

the racial contract

An implicit or explicit agreement among whites to maintain racial privilege and domination.

purpose of the racial contract

To explain how racism is built into political and moral systems.

racial polity

The social and political order organized around racial hierarchy.

racial jurdicial system

Laws and legal institutions that uphold white supremacy.

racial state and whiteness

The state operates to protect the interests of white people.

white supremacy

A global system of domination that privileges white people socially, politically, and economically.

requerimiento

A 1513 Spanish document asserting European right to conquer and convert Indigenous peoples.

expropriation contract

Claimed European right to occupy and take non-European lands.

slavery contract

Legal and social framework that justified enslaving non-European peoples.

colonial contract

The broader system legitimizing colonization, domination, and exploitation.

economic exploitation

The extraction of labor and resources for European benefit.

Historical Actuality of the Racial Contract

These racial and colonial systems created enduring global racial hierarchies.

karl marx

theory centers on historical materialism and class struggle, positing that societies evolve through conflicts between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class). He argued that capitalism inherently creates inequality and exploitation, which would ultimately lead to a worker revolution and the establishment of a classless, communist society where the means of production are collectively owned.

emile durkheim

main theory posits that society is composed of social facts—external, coercive forces like norms, values, and institutions—that shape individual behavior. He developed the functionalist perspective, viewing society as an organism where different parts work to maintain order and stability through social solidarity.

W.E.B. Du Bois

Double Consciousness, the concept that Black people must see themselves through the lens of a racist white society, and the Veil, a metaphor for the racial segregation and the barriers it creates. He also developed Race Conflict Theory, which focuses on racial disparities and conflicts, advocated for the Talented Tenth to uplift the Black community through education, and emphasized the need to address systemic racism and economic injustice to achieve true equality.

Mills

the sociological imagination, which connects private troubles to public issues by linking individual lives to broader social and historical forces, and his analysis of the power elite, a theory arguing that a small group in government, military, and corporate sectors holds disproportionate power and influences societal decisions