Unit 1 AP Psych

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success.

Natural Selection

By which organisms w/ traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on traits to other generations

Nature

"Genes" are inherent and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behavior, and conginitive balities

Nuture

"Enviroment" influences and experiences that shaoe an indivduals psycholgical development, behavior, and congivtve ablitlies

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence/genetics, and environment or traits and behavior

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities b/w adopted children nd their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics vs. environment on various traits/behavior

Family Studies

Analyze similarities + differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and enviroment in shaping traits and behaviors within

Heredity

The transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring.

Genetic Predisposition

The inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

The belief is that improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction can increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable traits. - associated with selective breeding

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions (thinking, perceiving, and decision-making)

Highly folded to increase surface area, allowing for complex neural processing and integration of information

Lobes of the Brain

4 main regions or sections into which the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, is divided

Frontal: Executive Control Center

Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing hub

Occipital Lobe: Visual processing Center

Temporal Lobe: Auditory Center

Association Areas

Part of the brain that takes information from all over, what we see, hear, smell, and touch, and puts it together to help us understand the world

Frontal Lobe

Front of the brain, involved in high-level cognitive functions: decision making, problem solving, planning, and personality expression

Prefrontal Cortex

Located frontal lobe, responsible for high-level thinking, cognitive functions, and executive functions.

Executive functions

A set of cognitive processes that enable organizing, picking, focusing attention, regulating emotions, and managing time

Motor Cortex

Located in frontal lobe, responsbiel for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of body

- sends signals to muscles, enables action like walking & talking

Parietal Lobe

Located top of the brain, primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body: touch, temp

Able to see and feel

Somatosensory Cortex

Located in the parietal lobes, responsible for processing sensations from skin, muscles, and joints

EX: walking on the beach, detect sensory infromation of sand and temp

Occipital Lobes

Located at the back of the brain, it processes visuals from the eyes

primary visual cortex; helps interpret visual stimuli; can help see colors, shapes, and motion

Temporal Lobes

Located at the side of the brain, processing auditory info, language composition, and memory formation

confirm the auditory cortex, which helps hear sounds from the ear

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

- facilitate communication and information, shaping b/wthe two hemispheres

Brainstem

The outlet and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life, breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles

- pathways for neural signals traveling b/w the brain and the rest of the body, connecting the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

Medulla

Base of the brainstem, a vital structure for regulating essential autonomic functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

- serve as a relay station for nerve signals traveling, involuntary movements around for survival

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness

- Filters sensory information and moderates overall brain activity - helping alertness

Cerebellum

Located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum hemisphere, responsible for movements, balance, and posture

- receives input from the sensory system and the stem parts

Limbic System

Located beneath the cerebral cortex;a set of brain structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation

Reward Center

Network of brain structure, primarily located in the limbic system; processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behavior associated w/ them

EX: Actived w/ laughing and enjoying times = triggers dopamine - neurotransmitter of pleasure

Thalamus

A relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cortex

- Directs signals to the appropriate brain for further processing

Hypothalamus

Small but powerful structure located below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions: hunger, thirst, body temp, and sleep, waking

- to activate your body to remain stable - homeostasis

Pituitary Gland

(Master Gland) A small pea-sized gland located at the base, central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body

- Coordinate hormone acitvity + regulate homeostatis

Hippocampus

Curved structure located within the temporal lobe, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structure deep in the brain's temporal lobe, involved in processing emotion, fear, and aggression

- Central role in the brain's threat detection system, triggering the body's fight/flight response to perceived danger

The Nervous System

The body communication network, consisting of complex systems of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord, serves as the command center of the body. Responsible for processing movement, coordinating responses, and regulating functions

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord

- Communication network, transmitting sensory into from the body to the CNS

Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions, operates automatically, w/out conscious control

2 amin branches: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for activating the body's "fight or flight" response in times of danger or stress

Increased heart rate, dilated airways, and redirected blood flow to essential areas

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress/danger

Slows heart rate, digestion, allowing body to conserve energy

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the Pheriphal system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and regulating sensory

Neruons

Specialized cell that serves as a building block of the nervous system

Transmitting electrical + chemical signals

3 main parts: cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon

Glial Cells

"Support Cells" of the neuronal system, providing structural support, insulating, and nourishment to neurons

- essential role in maintaining brain health and supporting neurons

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the CNS to muscles/glands, and organs

- Initiating and controlling voluntary + involuntary movements

Sensory neurons

Transmit sensory into from sensory receptors, in skin, muscles, and organs to CNS

- Directs various stimuli - touch + temp

Interneurons

Serves as connectors within CNS, relaying signals b/w sensory neurons and motor neurons

Reflex Arc

Neural pathway that controls reflex action, allowing rapid, autonomic response to sensory stimulu w/out consicous thought

- Protectthe body and enable reaction to potential danger

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate w/ each other through electrical/ chemical signals

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. Minimum amount of stimulation to produce a response

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron

- Occur when a neuron receives stimuli that cause the cell to become more positively charged than outside

All-or-nothing Principle

Once a neuron reaches a threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength

- Below threshold = will not fire

Depolarization

Phase of the action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions like sodium ions

Refractory Period

A brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential

Resting Potential

The stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of the neuron does not transmit signals

- maintained by the unequal distribution of ions

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron

Multiple Sclerosis "MS"

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the CNS, including the spinal cord + brain

- occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective myelin sheath, causing inflammation + damage

Myasthenia Gravis

Chronic autoimmune that affects the neurotransmitter junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles

- occurs when system produces antibodies that destroy the receptor for acetycholine, a neurotransmitter that stimulate muscles

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that transmit signals b/w neurons, allowing communication within the nervous system

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

- bind to postsynaptic membrane, causing depolarization and making neurons more potential to fire

Glutamate

Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS, plays a key role in synaptic transmission and neuronal communication

- Involved in various brain functions, memory + neural communication

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

Decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

GABA

Acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS

- promotes relazation + reduces anexity

Dopamine

Crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement

- pleasure and reward, neurotransmitter in brain's reward system

Serotonin

Played a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress

- influence mood + emotional well-being, neurotransmitter for mental health

Endorphins

Produced by the brain and CNS which acts as a natural pain reliever and mood enhancer

- relax to stress, pain, or intense physical activity

Substance P

Involved in transmitting pain signals to the nervous system

- binds specific receptors on nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain, amplifying pain signals and contributing to perception

Acetycholine

Fundamental role in both CNS and PNS

- involved in functions: muscle contraction, memory,and learning

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells/organs, regulating various physiological processes

Ghrelin

Produced primarily by the stomach and small intestines which stimulate appetite and promote hunger

- Hunger hormone, increases before a meal and decreases after a meal

Leptin

Produced primarily by fat cells that regulate energy balance and appetite. Act as hypothalamus in brain to suppress hunger and increase energy

Melatonin

Regulate sleep; maintains body internal clock and ensuring restful sleeo

Oxytocin

Key role in social bonding

- "Love Hormone" due to involvement in forming emotional connections, trusting, and intimacy

Adrenaline

Key role in body stress response, "fight or flight"

-Due to stress, fear, excitement

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that functions both hormone and a neurotransmitter, involved in "fight or flight", regulating arousal, attention, and stress

- increased heart rate, BP,, and alertness during stress or danger

Plasticity

Refer to the brain's ablity to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experience, learning, and environmental changes

- process life synaptic pruning, sprouting new changes in neural pathways, adapting and regulating lost functions to learn new ones

Split Brain Research

Study individuals who have undergone surgical procedure; corpus callosum, which disconnects two hemispheres of the brain

-Done for electrical serizues, orginate from eletrical acivity, spreading b/w 2 hemispsheres

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Phenomenon about new each hemisphere of the brain control opposite sides of the body

Hemispheric Specialization

Concept of each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions + abilities

Linguistic Processing

Complex cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing language

-when hearing something, immediately comprehends the meaning of words

Broca's Area

Left Hemisphere - Frontal Lobe, responsible for speech production and language processing

-crucial role for formation of grammatically correct sentences and coordination of muscles involved in speech

Broca's Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to Brocas Area

-Have difficulty producing fluent speech and forming grammatically correct sentences

-Speech may be slow, and short sentences

Wernicke's Area

Left Hemisphere - Temporal Lobe

Involved in language comp and understanding spoken and written language

-Helps to interpret words/sentences, allows to comprehend and process language

Wernicke's Aphasia

Exhibt fluent speech but having diffulty understanding spokena nd written language and producing meaningful + coherent words

Electroencephalogram "EEG"

Noninvasive neuroimaging tech used to record the electrical activity of the brain

-placing electrodes on scale to detect and measure electrical signals produced by neurons

- used to diagnose and montior vaiours neurological conditions; like elipsiey, sleep disorder

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging "fMRI"

Neuroimaging used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and 02 levels

-providing dectected images of brain strcutre + images of brain strcutre + function, to see which brain are active during stimulus

Lesioning

Research tech to study the brain function by intentionally damaging or destryoing specific areas of the brain in an animal's brain

-achived through sugical removal, chemical injections, or electrical stimulation