metab 1: exam 1

What are the physiological roles of carbohydrates?

What are simple carbohydrates (i.e., monosaccharides and disaccharides), what are the main compounds (e.g., glucose, sucrose), and what are the disaccharides made up of?

What are complex carbohydrates (i.e., oligosaccharides, polysaccharides), where are they found, and what are they made up of? Know which are digestible vs. indigestible.

Carbohydrate digestion – understand what occurs in each location of digestion and absorption (e.g., mouth, stomach, small intestine)

What form are carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine?

What happens in the microvilli of enterocytes?

How are glucose, galactose, and fructose absorbed in the intestine? How do they get from the intestine to the bloodstream?

Know the types of transport vs. diffusion and the transporters.

What are the possible fates of absorbed carbohydrates?

What is the gut microbiome? What do microbes do that is relevant to carbohydrate digestion and absorption?

What is the difference between prebiotics and probiotics?

What is lactose intolerance?

How do monosaccharides get from the intestine to the bloodstream?

Understand what GLUT (glucose transporters are, which one is insulin-dependent and in which tissues it is found, and generally what happens to them when binding occurs

What is the role of insulin in helping to normalize blood glucose? How is GLUT4 involved?

What occurs in the liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, brain, and red blood cells?

Do not need to memorize specific GLUTs used in these tissues but do need to understand where GLUT4 is and thus which tissues require insulin for uptake.

What is the difference between glycemic index and glycemic load?

What are some clinical implications of insulin resistance?

Glycolysis definition, overview, and cellular context (where occurs and general process)

Types of glycolysis (aerobic and anaerobic) and the differences

What is the glycolysis pathway?

What are the starting and end molecules and what are the intermediates, enzymes, energy used/produced (energy in the form of ATP plus energy equivalents such as NAD/NADH) in glycolysis.

which reactions are reversible and non-reversible in glycolysis

Which enzymes in glycolysis are tissue specific and where?

Which reaction leads to the production of 2 of the same intermediate molecules in glycolysis

• (ultimately resulting in the formation of 2 pyruvate and double the energy produced)

What are the key regulatory enzymes in glycolysis?

• Hint – they are the same ones that have to be bypassed on gluconeogenesis.

what is the ultimate result of pyruvate kinase deficiency?

Fate of pyruvate under aerobic vs. anaerobic conditions in krebs cycle

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex (krebs cycle):

• What is it

• when does it occur

• where located in the cell

• what are the starting and final molecules?

• Know the co-factors. (Do not need to know the specific steps, enzymes, or other molecules beyond ATP/energy equivalents produced.)

What are the consequences of inhibition of pyruvate metabolism and how is it treated?

what are the major inputs and outputs of krebs cycle

describe how the krebs cycle has an amphibolic nature (catabolic and anabolic roles)

what atp equivalents are produced by krebs cycle (and how many)

what are the starting molecules, the final molecules, intermediates, enzymes, and what is the involvement of NAD+/NADH, ADP/ATP, and GDP/GTP in krebs cycle

• Focus on the reactions outline in the text of each slide with steps.

What are the regulatory Krebs/TCA enzymes and what are the activators and inhibitors?

describe mitochondrial bioenergetics and ATP production in etc

what is the malate-aspartate shuttle

• where is it located, what does it do and how?

what is the glyercol-3-phosphate shuttle

• where is it located, what does it do and how?

describe overview of oxidative phosphorylation

what are the roles of etc in physiology

what are the nutrient-related components of the etc

what is the path for electrons and what are they passed to on their way through the ETC (e.g., coenzyme Q, cytochrome C)

• Where do the electrons come from in the ETC?

• What are the electrons ultimately passed to and what is produced?

Where do hydrogen ions flow to and what is the purpose in etc/oxidative phosphorylation?

What does the proton/hydrogen ion gradient do related to ATP synthase in etc/oxidative phosphorylation?

What does ATP synthase do in etc/oxidative phosphorylation?

How is the ETC generally regulated?

• Uncoupling proteins (UCPs) – function, role in thermogenesis and ROS regulation, and overexpression effects

Uncoupling agents and oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors

• function, example agents and effects

What nutritional strategies can balance the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the ETC?

Glucose homeostasis – glycogen metabolism

• understand overall concept and opposing effects of insulin and glucagon

Overview, purpose, and location of glycogenesis

what are the differences between liver and muscle glycogen

Glycogen structure:

• α(1→4) and α(1→6) glycosidic bonds and importance of branching

Pathway of glycogenesis including the role of glycogenin

Energy requirements for glycogenesis (ATP and UTP consumption)

Glycogen storage diseases (GSDs) – know what it is and general symptoms

Physiological roles of glycogenolysis

what is the overall process of glycogen metabolism (glycogenesis and glycogenolysis)

• what products and enzymes are involved

what is the purpose of hmp shunt

what is the function of hmp shunt

what are the products of hmp shunt

what are the differences in activity across tissues (e.g., low in skeletal muscle)

what are the 2 major phases of hmp shunt and what are the major differences (what happens generally)

fructose and galactose metabolism: what happens following absorption

fructose and galactose metabolism: what can they be converted to

fructose and galactose metabolism: what are their fates (e.g., triacylglycerol production, enter glycolysis)