Unit 7: Cognition

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74 Terms

1

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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2

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

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4

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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5

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system— for example, by extracting meaning

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storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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7

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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8

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously

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9

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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10

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

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11

long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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12

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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13

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

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14

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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15

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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16

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

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17

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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18

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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19

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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20

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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21

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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22

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

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23

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

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24

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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25

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

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26

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

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27

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

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28

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

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29

flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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30

long term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

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31

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

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32

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

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33

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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34

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

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35

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

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36

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

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37

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

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38

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

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39

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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40

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

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41

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event

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42

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

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43

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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44

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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45

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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46

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

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47

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

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48

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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49

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

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50

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

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51

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

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insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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53

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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54

fixation

(1) in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

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55

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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56

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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57

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

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59

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

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60

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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61

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments

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62

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

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63

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

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64

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

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65

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

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66

babbling stage

beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

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67

one word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

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68

two word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

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69

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs

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70

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area

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71

Broca's area

helps control language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

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72

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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73

linguistic determinism

the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us

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74

linguistic influence

the idea that language affects thought

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