global midterms

Paleolithic

The Old Stone Age when humans were hunter-gatherers using simple stone tools.

Neolithic

The New Stone Age marked by agriculture, settled villages, and polished stone tools.

Agricultural Revolution

The shift from hunting-gathering to farming that enabled permanent settlements and population growth.

Domestication

The process of breeding and taming plants and animals for human use.

Hunter-gatherer

A person or group that obtains food by foraging, hunting, and fishing rather than farming.

Nomad

A person who moves frequently instead of living in a permanent settlement.

Civilization

A complex society with cities, government, social classes, specialization, and often writing.

Artifact

Any human-made object that helps archaeologists understand past cultures.

Culture

Shared beliefs, practices, customs, arts, and institutions of a group.

Stone Age

Prehistoric period when stone was the primary material for tools and weapons.

Bronze Age

Period when bronze (copper + tin) tools and weapons became common.

Copper Age

Transitional era when copper tools were used before bronze was widespread.

Specialization

When people focus on one job or skill (e.g., potter, soldier) in a complex society.

Writing

A system for recording language using symbols; enables record-keeping and laws.

Religion

Organized set of beliefs and practices about the supernatural and moral rules.

Social class

A division of society based on wealth, status, or occupation.

Monument

A large structure (e.g., pyramid, temple) built to honor people or events.

Fertile Crescent

Fertile Near East region where agriculture and early states first developed.

Mesopotamia

Ancient region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; location of early civilizations like Sumer.

Tigris River

One of Mesopotamia’s rivers that supported early agriculture and settlements.

Euphrates River

Partner river to the Tigris that nourished Mesopotamian civilizations.

Nile River

Egyptian river whose predictable floods supported agriculture and state power.

Indus River

River in South Asia where the Indus Valley civilization developed.

Yellow River (Huang He)

Chinese river where early Chinese civilization arose, known for loess soil and floods.

City-state

Independent political unit made up of a city and its surrounding territory (e.g., polis).

Sumer

One of the earliest Mesopotamian civilizations, known for city-states and cuneiform.

Hammurabi

Babylonian king famous for codifying laws (Hammurabi’s Code).

Hammurabi’s Code

An early written legal code specifying laws and punishments.

Cuneiform

Early Mesopotamian writing system using wedge-shaped marks on clay.

Hieroglyphs

Egyptian pictorial writing system used for records and monuments.

Pharaoh

Title for ancient Egyptian rulers who combined political and religious authority.

Indus Valley Cities

Planned Harappan urban centers with streets, drainage, and trade networks.

Harappa

Major city of the Indus Valley civilization noted for planning and craft production.

Mohenjo-Daro

Major Indus Valley city known for urban planning and sanitation systems.

Mandate of Heaven

Chinese belief that rulers govern with heaven’s approval, revokeable by misrule.

Dynastic Cycle

Pattern of rise, decline, and replacement of dynasties in Chinese history.

Bureaucracy

Organized system of officials and departments that administer state policies.

Mesopotamian Empire

Series of empires (e.g., Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian) in Mesopotamia.

Assyrian Empire

Militaristic Mesopotamian empire known for strong armies and administrative control.

Persian Empire

Vast empire (Achaemenid) noted for tolerance, satraps, and the Royal Road.

Satrap

Provincial governor in the Persian Empire who administered a region for the king.

Royal Road

Persian road network that facilitated rapid communication and trade.

Cyrus the Great

Founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, noted for tolerant policies.

Darius I

Persian ruler who improved administration and infrastructure across the empire.

Indo-Europeans

Groups from the Eurasian steppes whose migrations spread languages and culture.

Steppe

Large grassy plain in Eurasia, homeland of many migrating peoples.

Migration

Movement of people from one region to another, spreading ideas and genes.

Caste System

Rigid hereditary social hierarchy in South Asia determining status and jobs.

Jainism

Indian religion stressing extreme nonviolence and ascetic practices.

Buddhism

Religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama focusing on ending suffering via the Eightfold Path.

Hinduism

Diverse Indian religious tradition centered on karma, dharma, and reincarnation.

Phoenicians

Seafaring Mediterranean traders who developed an influential alphabet.

Alphabet

Writing system where symbols represent sounds; Phoenician alphabet influenced many later scripts.

Judaism

Early monotheistic religion centered on a covenant with one God and the Torah.

Cultural diffusion

The spread of ideas, technologies, and customs between societies.

Polis

Greek city-state, the basic political and social unit in ancient Greece.

Acropolis

Fortified high point in a Greek city, often the religious center (e.g., Athens).

Agora

Public marketplace and civic meeting place in a Greek polis.

Helot

State-owned serf in Sparta forced to work the land for Spartan citizens.

Phalanx

Dense infantry formation of Greek hoplites relying on shields and discipline.

Mycenaean

Early Greek Bronze Age culture known for fortified palaces and warlike society.

Greek geography

Mountainous and maritime landscape that encouraged independent city-states.

Types of government

Forms of rule in ancient Greece: democracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, monarchy, tyranny.

Persian Wars

Conflicts where Greek city-states repelled Persian invasions, boosting Greek unity.

Golden Age of Athens

Period of Athenian cultural achievement in art, drama, and philosophy after the Persian Wars.

Socrates

Greek philosopher who questioned assumptions and encouraged critical thinking.

Plato

Student of Socrates who founded the Academy and wrote about justice and ideal forms.

Aristotle

Philosopher who emphasized observation and wrote on many subjects including politics and science.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king who conquered Persia and spread Greek culture across a vast area.

Hellenistic Era

Period after Alexander when Greek culture mixed with Persian, Egyptian, and Indian elements.

Roman Republic

Roman government before the empire with elected officials, assemblies, and a senate.

Senate

Advisory council of elite landowners in the Roman Republic with political influence.

Consul

One of two chief magistrates in the Roman Republic who commanded armies and presided over government.

Patrician

Elite land-owning class in early Rome with most political power initially.

Plebeian

Commoner class in Rome that gradually gained political rights.

Magistrate

Elected Roman official responsible for judicial and administrative duties.

Punic Wars

Three wars between Rome and Carthage that secured Rome’s dominance in the western Mediterranean.

Carthage

Powerful Phoenician-founded city-state in North Africa and Rome’s main rival.

Julius Caesar

Roman general whose accumulation of power ended the Republic; assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

Augustus (Octavian)

First Roman emperor who established stable imperial rule and began the Pax Romana.

Pax Romana

Long period of relative peace and stability across the Roman Empire.

Christianity

Religion based on the teachings of Jesus that spread widely in the Roman world.

Diocletian

Roman emperor who reorganized the administration and divided the empire into East and West.

Constantine

Roman emperor who legalized Christianity and refounded Byzantium as Constantinople.

Fall of Rome

Gradual collapse of the Western Roman Empire due to internal issues and external invasions.

Maurya Empire

Early Indian empire that unified much of the subcontinent; Ashoka promoted Buddhism.

Ashoka

Mauryan emperor who converted to Buddhism and promoted nonviolence and moral governance.

Han Dynasty

Major Chinese dynasty known for bureaucracy, Confucianism, and the Silk Road.

Confucianism

Chinese ethical-political system emphasizing filial piety, order, and proper relationships.

Legalism

Chinese philosophy that advocated strict laws and harsh punishments to maintain order.

Daoism (Taoism)

Philosophical tradition advocating harmony with the Dao (the Way) and naturalness.

Silk Road

Network of trade routes connecting China to Central Asia, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean.

Bantu migrations

Movements of Bantu-speaking peoples across sub-Saharan Africa spreading language and agriculture.

Animism

Belief that natural objects, animals, and plants possess spiritual essences.

Aksum (Axum)

Trading kingdom in the Horn of Africa known for Red Sea trade and early adoption of Christianity.

Mesoamerica

Region of Central America where independent civilizations like the Olmec and Maya arose.

Olmec

Early Mesoamerican culture known for colossal stone heads and influence on later societies.

Maya

Mesoamerican civilization noted for cities, a complex calendar, writing, and astronomy.

Andean civilizations

Cultures in the Andes (e.g., Chavín, later Inca) adapted to highland environments.

Bering Land Bridge

Land connection between Asia and North America used by early migrants to the Americas.