HRM Ch 2-6

A collection of vocabulary flashcards derived from the concepts covered in lectures on personality traits, mental abilities, ethics, prejudice, attribution, stress, motivation, and decision-making.

Extraversion

The personality trait that describes how outgoing, talkative, and assertive a person is.

Agreeableness

A personality trait that indicates how trusting, helpful, selfless, considerate, tolerant, and flexible a person is.

Conscientiousness

A personality trait linked to how organized, dependable, goal-focused, thorough, and disciplined a person is.

Neuroticism

A personality trait associated with how anxious, insecure, and worried a person is, often linked to emotional instability.

Openness to experience

A personality trait describing how imaginative, creative, curious, and unconventional a person is.

Locus of control

Refers to how much people believe they control their fate through their own efforts. (taking initiative)

Locus of Control (Internal)

Strong belief that you control your own fate

Locus of Control (External)

Strong belief that your fate is determined by factors outside of your control

Self-efficacy

the belief in one’s personal ability to do a task

Self-esteem

The extent to which people like/dislike themselve, their overall self-evaluation

Mental Ability

The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge, including solving problems

IQ (general) factor

A general cognitive factor that relates to almost all kinds of mental ability

S (special) factor

A cognitive factor that relates to specific types of mental ability. Includes 7 factors.

[S factor] Verbal Comprehension

The ability to understand the meaning of words and how they relate to each other

[S factor] Word Fluency

The ability to use words quickly and easily, without an emphasis on verbal comprehension

[S factor] Numerical

The ability to handle numbers, engage in mathematical analysis, and do arithmetic calculations

[S factor] Spatial

The ability to visualize forms in space and manipulate objects mentally, particularly in 3D

[S factor] Memory

The ability to easily recall symbolism, words, and lists of number along with other associations

[S factor] Perceptual Speed

The ability to perceive visual details, identify similarities and differences and perform tasks requiring visual perception

[S factor] Inductive Reasoning

The ability to discover a rule or principle and apply it to solving a problem, and to make judgements and decisions that are logical

Ethics

Standards of right and wrong that influence behaviors

Organizational approach

• Old way 

• Bottom line: profit 

• Triple bottom line 

• Profit, People, Plane 

Individual Approach (list Internal and External)

• “People”, revisited 

Internal stakeholders: Employees, managers, shareholders, etc. 

External stakeholders: Customers, government regulators, community members, etc. 

Kohlberg’s theories of moral development [3 Levels]

• Level 1: Preconventional 

• Follows rules 

• Level 2: conventional 

• Follows the expectations of IMPORTANT others 

• Level 3: Postconventional  

• Guided by internal values 

Utilitarian Approach [Focuses on Consequences]

Making a decision that does more good than harm (best outcome for the majority).

Moral-rights [Focuses on Individual Rights]

Respect for impartial standards of fairness (the law is assumed to be “Impartial”) 

Prejudice definition

A preconceived opinion or judgment about an individual or group, often based on characteristics such as race, gender, or ethnicity, leading to discrimination or bias.

Prejudice “Hot” explanation

• Assume that there’s a motivation to process the prejudice 

• Historically more emphasized 

• Share a common focus on self-esteem 

• Valuing me and mine 

This refers to emotionally driven biases that influence perceptions and behaviors. This involves underlying motivations related to self-esteem, historical context, and a focus on in-group favoritism.

Prejudice “Cold” explanation

makes no assumption and simply views prejudice as the unfortunate consequence of otherwise everyday cognitive processes 

Prejudice Social Identity Theory

• Who you are is based in part on group affiliating (the “mine” in valuing me and mine)” 

• Thus, the greater the relative worth of one’s group, the greater one's own self-esteem. 

A theoretical framework that explains how an individual's self-concept is influenced by their group memberships, leading to increased self-esteem through in-group favoritism.

Prejudice Social Learning (learned/aquired)

• Illusory correlation 

• Family, friends, media 

Corresponding Bias

the tendency to assume that a person's behavior is due to their character or personality, even when the behavior can be fully explained by the situation

Attribution

Inferring causes for observer behavior

3 facets of behavior are typically the issue

1. Consensus: How similar is an employee’s behavior to the employee’s peers?

2. Consistency: How consistent is an employee’s behavior on a given task over time? 

3. Distinctiveness: Is the quality of the employee’s performance on “task X” similar to the employee’s performance on other tasks? 

Consensus: How similar is an employee’s behavior to the employee’s peers? 

High consensus: Fill in the blank

Low consensus: Fill in the blank

1. High = very similar (environmental attribution) 

2. Low = very dissimilar (person/employee attribution) 

Consistency: How consistent is an employee’s behavior on a given task over time? 

High consistency: Fill in the blank

Low consistency: Fill in the blank

1. High = very similar (employee attribution) 

2. Low = very dissimilar (environmental attribution) 

Distinctiveness: Is the quality of the employee’s performance on “task X” similar to the employee’s performance on other tasks?

High distinctiveness: Fill in the blank

Low distinctiveness: Fill in the blank

1. High = environmental attribution 

2. Low = employee attribution  

Job Satisfaction

Consequences HIGH

• Better job performance, loyalty, attendance, and mood at home 

• Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) 

• Willingness to work for the good of the company without the promise of a specific reward 

Job Satisfaction

Consequences LOW

Exit: Attempts to leave the organization/ department where you’re dissatisfied  

Voice: Any attempt to change the situation from unsatisfactory to satisfactory 

Loyalty: As loyalty decreases, you become more likely to either use Voice or to Exit 

Neglect: Reduction in work effort (showing up late, leaving early, slacking off at work, etc.) 

Stress

An adaptive response to an environment perceived as challenging/threatening to a person’s well-being

Symptoms and consequences of stress

1. Physiological: High blood pressure, increased heart rate, sweating, weakened immune system, etc. 

2. Emotional: Anxiety, depression. Mental fatigue, etc. 

3. Behavioral: Twitching, forgetfulness, difficulty concentrating, etc. 

4. Burnout: Combination of emotional/physical/mental exhaustion 

Factors contributing to stress 

Within the Individual

• Type A personality: Someone who is highly ambitious, competitive, and impatient 

• Internal locus control 

• Negative lifestyle factors: Poor diet, exercise habits, poor sleep, drug use 

• Nomophobia: Anxiety caused by not having access to your smartphone 

Factors contributing to stress

Within the organization

• Work overload: Organization’s expectations (of the amount of work you need to complete) overwhelms you 

• Low-task control + high-task responsibility  

E.g. little control over how/when to do the task, but you get most/ all the blame if something goes wrong 

• Organizational constraints 

E.g. Lack of resources/support necessary to do your job 

Stressor

• Any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a person  

• Not necessarily a bad thing 

McClelland’s learned needs theory 

• Need for achievement – “I need to excel at tasks” (not just easy tasks) 

• Need for affiliation – “I need close relationships” 

• Need of power – “I need to control others” 

Learning Goal Orientation

Mastery Orientation

Prioritizes steady self-improvement 

Learning Goal Orientation

Performance orientation

• Be seen superior 

• Prioritizes demonstration of proficiency, gaining praises/recognition from others, and outperforming others 

• Less okay with failure 

Process Perspectives

the thought processes by which people decide how to act 

Justice theory

1. Distribute Justice

2. Procedural Justice

3. Interactional Justice

Justice Theory

Distributive justice

perception that appropriate rules were applied when making the final distribution of benefits/burdens 

Justice Theory

Procedural justice

perception that appropriate rules were applied throughout the entire decision-making process 

Justice Theory

Interactional justice

perception that appropriate rules governed the treatment of employees through the decision-making process

Equity Theory [Inputs, Outputs, and Comparison]

1. Inputs: what you put into the job (effort, etc.) 

2. Output: what you receive from the job (salary, etc.) 

3. Comparison: how does my ratio of inputs to outputs compare to my co-workers or people at similar jobs 

Expectancy Theory

The assumption that a particular level of effort will lead to successful performance

Effort > Performance Expectancy

Expectancy Theory

The assumption that the successful performance of the task will lead to a particular outcome. 

Performance > Outcome expectancy

Valence

How important is the outcome to you

Organizational behavior modification

Reinforcement: define..

Punishment: define…

• Reinforcement: anything that causes a given behavior to be repeated 

• Punishment: anything that causes a given behavior to be inhibited 

Types of Reinforcement perspectives on learning (4 types)

1. Positive Reinforcement

2. Negative Reinforcement

3. Positive Punishment

4. Negative Punishment

Implications for managerial practice 

Scientific Management

the process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs 

Implications for managerial practice 

Job Enlargement

increasing the number of roles taken in a job to increase variety and motivation  

Implications for managerial practice

Job enrichment

employees are given more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, planning their own work

Rational Choice decision-making

The process of using pure logic and all available information about all alternatives to choose the alternative with the highest value 

Steps for Making a Rational Choice

1. Identifying the problem or opportunities 

2. Choose the best decision process 

3. Discover/develop possible choices 

4. Select the choice with the highest value  

5. Implement the choice 

6. Evaluate the choice 

Issues with rational choice

The non-rational model of decision-making assumes decision-making is nearly always uncertain and risky. Making it difficult for managers to use logic in an optimal way 

Bounded Rationality

the ability of decision makers to be rational is limited by numerous constraints 

Stakeholder Framing

• Different stakeholders have different interests 

• Stakeholders' interests often differ from your org’s interests

Mental Models

Your framing of the problem in your own mind contradicts reality leading to biases in decision-making.

Decisive Leadership

Pressure to act quickly prevents you from fully understanding the problem beforehand 

Types of Biases

1. Availability Bias

2. Representative Bias

3. Anchoring and Adjustment Bias

4. Framing Bias

5. Sunk-Cost Bias

Types of Biases

Availability bias

Managers use information readily available from memory to make decisions 

Types of Biases

Representative Bias

The tendency to judge the probability of an event or the characteristics of a person by how closely they match a familiar mental prototype or stereotype

Types of Biases

Anchoring and Adjustment Bias

The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information they receive (the "anchor") when making decisions

Types of Biases

Framing Bias

the tendency of decision-makers to be influenced by how the information is presented to them, rather than the piece of information itself

Types of Biases

Sunk-Cost bias

Money already spent on a project and conclude it’s too costly to abandon 

 

Maximization

Assumption: Managers are motivated and able to find the solution that maximizes org outcomes 

Reality: “satisficing” 

• Managers seek alternatives until they find one that is satisfactory rather than optimal 

Evaluating Opportunities

Assumption: managers are motivated to thoughtfully weigh the pros and cons of the different opportunities  

Reality: “satisficing” 

Emotional Intelligence

Self-awareness

Understanding your emotions, how they affect you, and how they affect others

Emotional Intelligence

Self-management

The ability to control your emotions and consistently behave with integrity

Emotional Intelligence

Social-awareness

Having empathy for others and intuition about organizational problems

Emotional Intelligence

Relationship management

Interpersonal skills (conflict resolution, effective communication, establishing personal bonds)

Emotional Labor

The process of regulating feelings of expressions to achieve organizational goals

Surface Acting

Faking expressions

Deep Acting

Trying to change your emotional state to match the emotion that you are developing

Emotional Dissonance

unease, or discomfort that arises from a conflict between one's internal emotional experience and external actions, social expectations, or values

Organization Citizenship Behavior (OCB)

Willingness to work for the good of the company without the promise of a specific reward

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing the frequency of a particular behavior by adding something positive to the person’s environment  

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing the frequency of a particular behavior by removing something negative from the persons environment

Positive Punishment

Decreasing the frequency of a behavior by adding something negative to the persons environment  

Negative Punishment

Decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing something positive from the persons environment  

Greenwashing

The act of making a product or service appear to be more environmentally than it truly is

Justice

Impartial standard of fairness