intro to psych

Domains of Human Development

• Physical (neural)

• Cognitive (intellectual)

• Social (emotional)

Developmental Issues and Methods

• Nature and nurture  

• Sensitive and critical periods  

• Stability and change  

• Continuity and discontinuity  

• Normative vs non-normative events  

 

Interdependence

The way people influence each other's experiences through their interactions

Object permanence

Things that continue to exist even when not perceived

Egocentrism

The inability of the preoperational child to see someone else’s perspective

Conservation

Understanding that an amount stays the same even if its shape or position changes.

Constructivism

When children interact with the world, they build mental frameworks (schemas) that help them understand how things work.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory 

• Microsystem: Your closest surroundings, like family and friends.

• Mesosystem: Connections between your immediate surroundings, like how home life and work life affect each other.

• Exosystem: Social settings that influence you without your active involvement, such as workplace policies.

• Macrosystem: Larger societal factors, like laws and cultural values, that shape your environment.

• Chronosystem: Changes that happen over time in your life and environment.

Critical Periods of Development

• There are specific times when the brain is ready to learn certain skills.

• If important experiences don’t happen during these times, the skills might not develop properly.

• Maturation: This is when biological changes happen in a set order, like during puberty.

Stability and Change

Change is the loss of a behaviour or function.

Occurs as:

Continuous: A slow and steady change in behaviour.

Discontinuous: Clear stages of development that differ from each other and follow a specific order.

Differences in Developmental Trajectories  

Quantitative Differences: People with developmental delays go through the same stages as others but more slowly.

Qualitative Differences: Individuals with autism develop social and emotional skills in ways that are different from their typically developing peers.

Developmental Psychology Research Methods 

Cross Sectional: Looks at different groups of people at one time.

Longitudinal: Follows the same group of people over time.

Sequential: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, looking at different groups over time.

Vygotsky’s Theory

Children learn best through social interactions with others, especially when they get help from more knowledgeable people.

Assimilation vs Accomodation

Assimilation: Adding new information to what you already know. For example, a cat can be called a dog because it has four legs.

Accommodation: Changing what you know to fit new information. For example, learning that a cat is not a dog and making a new category.

 

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 

Children’s thinking changes with age

Stages

Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Experiencing the world through senses and actions.

Object permanence, stranger anxiety.

Preoperational (2-6 years): Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning.

Pretend play, egocentrism, language development.

Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops, but only when dealing with real objects

Conservation, mathematical transformations

Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract thinking and problem-solving abilities emerge

Abstract logic, potential for moral reasoning

Temperament

How a person naturally reacts to things. It is influence by parental expectations and interactions, and it is shaped by cultural differences.

Classifying Infant Temperament 

Easy (40%)

• Sticks to regular eating and sleeping routines.

• Calms down easily and gets along well with new people and situations.

Difficult (10%)

• Has trouble following routines.

• Gets very upset, is hard to calm down, and doesn't adjust well to new things.

Slow to Warm Up (15%)

• Is careful in new situations.

• Needs time and help to feel comfortable and adjust.

Attachment in Infancy (3 theorists views)  

Freud: Infants form attachments to the person or object that provides oral satisfaction, like a mother breastfeeding her baby.

Erikson: The first year of life is about trust versus mistrust. Caring and comfort help infants develop basic trust.

Bowlby: Infants and parents are naturally inclined to form attachments. These attachments depend on how responsive and interactive the parent is with the infant.

Lorenz's Concept of "Imprinting"

Imprinting is a critical time when animals attach strongly to the first moving thing they see, usually a parent. In humans, kids raised in orphanages have a harder time forming attachments if adopted later, showing that a critical period exists for making bonds.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development 

Trust vs Mistrust (Birth - 1yr): Infants develop a basic sense of trust if needs are consistently met.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 - 3 years): Toddlers learn to be independent and make choices, or they doubt their abilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 6 years): Young children explore and take initiative, but may feel guilty about efforts to be independent

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - Puberty): Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Teens - 20s): Teens explore their identity and try to find out who they are, or they feel confused about themselves.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s - early 40s): Young adults form deep relationships, or they may feel isolated.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s - 60s): Adults discover a sense of contributing to the world through work and family, or they feel a lack of purpose.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late 60s+): When reflecting on their life, older adults feel a sense of satisfaction, or they feel like they failed.

Mary Ainsworth Attachment Theory - The Strange Situation

12-18 month old babies

1. Mother and baby play in a room.

2. A stranger enters.

3. The mother leaves.

4. The stranger tries to interact with the baby.

5. The mother returns.

   The quality of a child's early attachment to their caregiver influences their emotional and social development.

Classification of Attachment Styles

1. Secure (60%): Baby stops crying and is comforted when the mother returns.

2. Avoidant (25%): Baby may ignore the mother when she comes back.

3. Anxious/Ambivalent (10%): Baby is clingy, doesn’t explore, and gets upset or angry when the mother returns.

4. Disorganised (<10%): Baby acts confused and shows odd behavior when the mother leaves and returns.

Serve and Return

When a baby "serves" by making sounds, gestures, or eye contact, adults "return" by responding with things like eye contact, words, or touch. These interactions help build the baby's brain connections and support healthy development.

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian:

• Punish without explanation.

• Expect obedience.

• "Why? Because I said so."

Authoritative:

• Parents are firm but fair.

• Set rules and explain why.

• Encourage open communication.

Permissive:

• Let kids do what they want.

• Make few demands.

• Rarely use punishment.

Disengaged:

• Expect little from kids.

• Put in little effort as parents.

Why Caregiver Behaviour is Important?  

• Develop social skills which are important for social and emotional competence

• Understand the world around them and how to interact with others

Simple Learning

Learning can occur if a single stimulus is repeated  

Habituation: A decrease in response strength to a repeated stimulus.

Example: At first, an annoying noise bothers you, but after a while, you start to ignore it.

Sensitisation: An increase in response strength to a repeated, intense stimulus.

Example: If someone keeps poking you, you get more irritated each time.

Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov

This happens when a neutral stimulus (like a sound or light) begins to elicit (trigger) a response after being repeatedly paired with something that naturally produces that response.

E.g. If you always hear a bell ring right before you eat, eventually the sound of the bell alone might make you feel hungry.  

This process is known as "classical conditioning." 

Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov

Unconditioned: Something you naturally do.

Conditioned: Something you learn to do.

Stimulus: Anything that elicits a response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS): Something that initially doesn’t elicit a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic response elicited by the UCS.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR): A response that is conditioned and elicited by the CS.

UCS → UCR

NS + UCS → UCR

CS → CR

Acquisition (classical)

The process of learning a new response through repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

If a dog salivates when it hears a bell because the bell has been repeatedly paired with food, it has acquired a new response, and learnt to associate the bell with food.  

Extinction (classical)

When the conditioned response gets weaker because the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

If the bell rings but no food comes, the dog will eventually stop salivating at the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery (classical)

When a conditioned response suddenly comes back after some time, even if the stimulus hasn’t been paired with the original trigger.

If the bell rings again after a break, the dog might start salivating again, even though it stopped.

Generalisation (classical)

When a conditioned response happens to similar stimuli.

A dog learns to salivate to a bell, it might also salivate to a similar sound.

Discrimination (classical)

When the conditioned response only happens to a specific stimulus, not to similar ones.

A dog learns to salivate only to a certain bell and ignores other sounds.

Conditioning of Emotional Responses  

Emotional Responses: Many of our feelings, like fear, disgust, and attraction, can be learned through classical conditioning. This means we can develop these feelings based on our experiences.

Little Albert Experiment: White rat, loud noise

Taste Aversion

A learned dislike for a certain food or drink after having a bad experience with it.

E.g. If someone eats a type of cake and then gets food poisoning, they might avoid that cake forever, even if it wasn’t the cake that made them sick.

Operant Conditioning - Edward Thorndike 

Learning of a new association between a behaviour and its consequences 

• The behaviour (e.g. the response) is voluntary  

• The behaviour is modified according to its consequences

Edward Thorndike: Cats in a box, cats learn by trying things and remembering what works (instrumental learning), Law of Effect

B.F. Skinner

Defined punishment and reinforcement.

Reinforcement: This increases behaviour.

Punishment: This decreases behaviour

Skinner Box: An animal, like a rat or pigeon, is put inside the box with a lever or button.

Reinforcement: When the animal presses the lever, it gets a reward, like food. This makes the animal want to press the lever more.

Punishment: If the animal does something wrong, it might get a mild shock or a loud noise. This makes it want to avoid that behaviour.

Operant Consequences  

Positive - Adding stimulus

Negative - Removing stimulus

Positive Reinforcement: Adding something good to encourage a behaviour (e.g., giving a dog a treat for sitting).

Negative Reinforcement: Removing something bad to encourage a behaviour (e.g., not making a child do a chore if they finish their homework).

Positive Punishment: Adding something bad to discourage a behaviour (e.g., scolding a child for being naughty).

Negative Punishment: Taking away something good to discourage a behaviour (e.g., taking away a toy when a child misbehaves).

Acquisition (operant)

When a behaviour gets stronger because it’s followed by a reward (reinforcement).

Extinction (operant)

When a behaviour gets weaker because it’s no longer followed by a reward.

Spontaneous Recovery (operant)

A previously learned behaviour suddenly reappears after a break, even if it hasn’t been reinforced.

Shaping

Breaking down a big task into smaller steps and rewarding each progress along the way.

Generalisation (operant)

The same behaviour occurs in similar situations or with similar stimuli.

Discrimination (operant)

The behaviour only occurs in specific situations or with specific cues.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

You get a reward every time you do the behaviour.

E.g. Every time child does hw gets treat

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

You only get a reward sometimes.

E.g. Child gets reward every 10th time hw is complete

Types of Schedules

Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement is based on how many times you respond.

• Fixed Ratio Schedule: You get a reward after a set number of responses (e.g., every 5th response).

• Variable Ratio Schedule: You get a reward after a changing number of responses, but it averages out (e.g., sometimes after 3 responses, sometimes after 7).

Interval Schedules: Reinforcement is based on time.

• Fixed Interval Schedule: You get a reward after a specific amount of time (e.g., every 5 minutes).

• Variable Interval Schedule: You get a reward after a changing amount of time (e.g., sometimes after 2 minutes, sometimes after 6)

Memory Processes

Encoding (stages of processing) - > Storage (types of long-term memory: declarative and non-declarative) -> Retrieval (contexts affect internal and physical environment)  

Encoding: Getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes

• Shallow Processing: Focus on superficial characteristics (e.g., sounds, images).

• Deep Processing: Focus on meaning (e.g., semantic encoding, elaboration).

Storage: Retaining information over time

Types of long-term memory:

• Declarative Memory: Facts and events.

• Non-declarative Memory: Skills and tasks.

Retrieval: A stimulus, whether internal or external, that activates information stored in long-term memory.

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.

• Recognition: Identifying information from options.

Three Systems of Memory

Sensory: Briefly holds raw information from the senses (like sight or sound), just long enough for the brain to decide if it’s important.

• Fades quickly unless you pay attention, in which case it moves to short-term memory for further processing.

Short-Term/ Working: Holds 7 'units' of information (phone number digits) plus or minus 2  

• Retains information for about 18 seconds.

• Involves rehearsal to maintain information.

Long-Term: Vast storage with potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

• Accessed via working memory.

• Includes declarative (facts) and non-declarative (skills) memories.

Memory Retrieval Strategies

Priming: Exposure to one stimulus triggers related memories or thoughts. E.g. if you hear "dog," it might automatically bring to mind words like "bark" or "pet," even if you weren’t thinking about them before.

State-Dependent Memory: Better recall when in the same state as when learned. E.g. if you’re studying when happy, you’ll most likely remember it when you’re happy again.

Mood Congruent Memory: Easier recall of memories that match the current mood. E.g. if you’re feeling sad, you’ll most likely remember sad memories.

Components of Working Memory

Central Executive: Control system that directs attention and manages the flow of information between the different memory systems (e.g., short-term and long-term memory).

Phonological Loop: Stores mental representations of sounds.

Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual and spatial information. E.g. someone’s face or the layout of your bedroom.

Episodic Buffer: It connects information from different places and ties it to long-term memory, helping create complete memories of experiences.

E.g. Remembering a friend's birthday party. You can picture the sound of music, the taste of the cake, and the sight of your friend opening presents. The episodic buffer helps combine all these details into one complete memory of the party

Forgetting

Amnesia: Loss of memory

• Retrograde Amnesia: Forgetting events before trauma.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after trauma

Impairment: Reduction in physical, cognitive, or emotional function

Memory Reconstruction (retrieval)

We filter and fill in gaps in our memories.

• Source Monitoring Error: Confusing where a memory came from.

• Misinformation Effect: New information can change our memories.

• Suggestive Questioning: Questions that lead someone toward a specific answer.(e.g., “Did you see the blue car?”).

Eyewitness Testimony: Memories are not exact; they’re rebuilt from various sources and fit our beliefs.

Implications- Memory Distortion: Reconstruction can lead to inaccuracies and false memories.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life events that helps us understand ourselves.

Methods:

• Retrospective surveys/interviews.

• Diary studies.

• Retrieval cues like words or photos.

Reminiscence Bump: People over 40 recall fewer memories before age five but have strong memories from ages 10 to 30, especially happy or significant events.

Life Script: Cultural expectations for major life events, like first jobs or marriages, make these easier to remember

Cross-Cultural Differences: While the reminiscence bump is similar across cultures, differences in the types of memories recalled (self-focus vs. collective focus)

Measuring Personality

Reliability: Consistency of a test's results.

Types:

• Test-retest: Consistency over time.

• Internal consistency: Ensures all questions measure the same thing.

• Inter-rater reliability: Consistency among different scorers.

Validity: Measures what it's supposed to.

Types:

• Face validity (look right) 

• Content validity (cover everything it should) 

• Criterion validity (does it line up with real-world outcomes) 

• Construct validity (is it really measuring what it claims)  

The Rorschach Inkblot Test has reliability and validity concerns. Different people may interpret the same inkblots differently, which affects consistency (inter-rater reliability). The test may not accurately predict behaviour or diagnose mental disorders, making it less reliable for assessing personality.

Psychoanalytic Approach - Sigmund Freud

Unconscious motives and early experiences shape personality.

Four aspects of Freudian theory 

Levels of Consciousness:

• Conscious: Current thoughts.

• Preconscious: Thoughts that can be recalled.

• Unconscious: Repressed thoughts.

Structural Model:

• Id: Only tries to fulfil your desires. E.g. If you're hungry, the id wants you to eat anything right away, regardless of where you are.

• Ego: Rational part that balances id and superego. Keeps conflict hidden. Uses defence mechanisms. Tries to satisfy the id's desires in a socially acceptable way. E.g. If you’re hungry, the ego might suggest waiting until lunchtime instead of eating in class. 

• Superego: Moral compass influenced by parents and society. It makes us feel proud if we do something right and guilty if doing something wrong.

Defence Mechanisms:

• Repression: Blocking painful memories from entering consciousness.

• Projection: Attributing unacceptable thoughts to others.

• Sublimation: Channeling impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Psychosexual Development (OAPLG)

• Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting). Issues can lead to dependence or aggression in adulthood.

• Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focus on bowel and bladder control. Success can lead to orderliness or messiness.

• Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Exploration of gender identity and relationships. Conflicts can cause guilt or anxiety about sexuality.

• Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual feelings are repressed, focusing on friendships and skills.

• Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual relationships develop; balance between various life areas is sought.

Assessing Unconscious Processes

Free association, hypnosis, dream analysis, and case histories.

Humanistic Approach- Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

Focuses on individual growth.

Concepts:

• Self Actualisation

• Self-efficiency (personal potential)

• Positive regard

• Conditions of worth

Abraham Maslow believed that behaviour is motivated by a desire for growth and fulfilment.

The Trait Approach -

Allport: Central (core) and Cardinal (dominant) traits.

Cattell: 16 Personality Factors Model

Eysenck: Introversion/ Extroverisan, Emotional Stability

Costa & Mcrae: Big Five OCEAN Model

Focuses on identifying traits that explain similarities and differences in behaviour.

Locus of Control:

• External: Believes fate or luck controls outcomes.

• Internal: Believes personal actions and abilities control outcomes.

Type A vs. Type B:

• Type A: Competitive, urgent, achievement-focused.

• Type B: Easygoing, relaxed.

Assumptions:

• Traits are stable over time and situations.

• Traits can predict behaviour.

• Everyone has a unique trait profile.

History of Typologies:

1. Four Temperaments - Melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine.

2. Carl Jung - (thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting).

3. MBTI - Developed from Jungs theory

The Trait Approach Pt 2

Five-Factor Model (Big Five):

• Openness: Likes new things.

• Conscientiousness: Organised and responsible.

• Extraversion: Social and energetic.

• Agreeableness: Friendly and kind.

• Neuroticism: Worries easily.

Trait Assessment: NEO-PI-R: Personality test that measures the Big Five traits. Assess how much someone exhibits each trait, helping to understand their behaviour and predict responses.

Social Learning/Cognitive Approach

Julian Rotter: Developed Expectancy Theory.

Albert Bandura: Introduced self-efficacy within reciprocal determinism.

Views personality as a result of learned thoughts and behaviours influenced by external situations, not just internal drives.

Rotter’s Expectancy Theory: Our behaviour is influenced by choices. Expectation x Reinforcement value.

Strengths: Shows how learned expectations shape behaviour.
Criticisms: May focus too much on external situations over personality.

Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism: The interaction between behaviour, environment, and personal factors (thoughts and feelings).

Strengths: Shows how behaviour, thoughts, and environment interact.
Criticisms: Doesn't fully consider biological or unconscious influences on behaviour.

Sources of Motivation

Physiological factors- Food, water, sex  

Cognitive factors- Perceptions of the world and what can/cannot be done  

Social factors- Influences of family, friends, sociocultural forces  

Emotional factors- Anxiety, rage, sorrow 

Instinct Theory

• Unlearned: Instincts are natural behaviours that don’t need to be learned.

• Uniform in Expression: Members of the same species express these instincts similarly.

• Universal in a Species: All members of a species exhibit the same instinctual behaviours.

• Human Instincts: It's hard to classify because our behaviour is influenced by culture and experiences, so the instinct theory may oversimplify things.

Arousal and Performance

• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Higher arousal improves performance, but only to a certain point.

Drive Reduction Theory

Homeostasis: The body's natural urge to keep everything balanced, like temperature, energy, and hydration.

• Need: This is a basic requirement for survival, like hunger, thirst etc.

• Drive: When a need arises, it leads to a drive, which is a strong urge or motivation to satisfy that need.

• Drive-Reducing Behaviour: Action you take to meet the need and reduce the drive.

• Need → Drive → Drive-Reducing Behaviour: Process of how a need leads to a drive that motivates actions to regain balance.

Types of Drives:

• Primary Drives: Relate to biological needs, such as feeling hungry, thirsty, or sexually deprived.

• Secondary Drives: Learned needs, like going to work to earn money, which helps meet other needs.

Incentives and Rewards

External stimuli that motivate behaviour can be positive (rewards) or negative (punishments).

They motivate us by providing rewards rather than just addressing basic needs.

Achievement Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: Gaining internal satisfaction from an activity with no external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards like job status, praise, money, or titles. Often associated with more pressure and stress. 

Intrinsic Motivation and Rewards: External rewards generally do not decrease intrinsic motivation. Sometimes, verbal rewards can even boost intrinsic motivation.

Self-Determination Theory

To feel motivated and satisfied, people need:

• Competence: Feeling capable

• Relatedness: Feeling connected to others

• Autonomy: Independence (control over ones actions)

Need for Achievement (nAch)

• High nAch:

  • Prefer activities that require planning.

  • Take individual responsibility for the outcome.

• Low nAch:

  • Choose tasks that are either too easy or overwhelmingly difficult.

Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs

Must satisfy lower-level needs before moving on to higher-level ones. 

1. Basic Needs (Bottom of the Pyramid):

   • Physiological Needs: Things like food, water, shelter, and sleep. These are essential for survival.

2. Safety Needs:

   • The need for security and protection from harm. This includes physical safety and financial stability.

3. Love and Belongingness Needs:

   • It's about the need for love and connection with others.

4. Esteem Needs:

   • The need for recognition, status, and feeling accomplished.

5. Self-Actualisation (Top of the Pyramid):

   • Reaching your full potential and personal growth.

Obedience and Conformity

Obedience: Changing behaviour to comply with authority figures.

Conformity: Changing behaviour to match a group, even if disagreeing.

Asch’s Conformity Experiment - Solomon Asch 1950

See how group pressure affects people's decisions (conformity).

Factors Affecting Conformity:

• Group size  

• Unanimity (agreement w everyone)

• Private response  

• Expertise, status 

Social Norms and Conformity

Norm: Social rules about appropriate behaviour in different situations  

Impact: Help society function effectively and reduce uncertainty.

Müller-Lyer Illusion

A visual illusion where two lines of the same length appear different due to framing by arrow-like figures.

Visual context affects our interpretation of lengths and distances.

Stanley Milgram’s Study on Obedience (shock one)

• Setup: Participants believed they were giving electric shocks to someone who made mistakes.

• Findings: Many continued to give shocks despite the person begging to stop.

• Conclusion: People may harm others when instructed by authority figures (obedience).

Attribution

Assigning causes to our own and others' behaviour.

Types:

• Personal (Internal): Based on personal traits (e.g., personality).

• Situational (External): Based on external factors (e.g., circumstances, environment).

Consequences: Satisfied spouses attribute positive actions to their partner's character and negative actions to external factors.

E.g., "She helped me because she’s generous" (internal) vs. "He said that because he’s stressed" (external).

Fundamental Attribution Error: Underestimating external factors and overestimating personal traits. E.g. If someone is rude to a cashier, we might think they're just a rude person (personal factor) instead of considering they could be having a bad day (situational factor). 

 

Attribution Theory - 3 Theorists

Fritz Heider: Behaviour can be attributed to internal and external factors.

Bernhard Weiner: Attributes can be internal vs external, controllable vs uncontrollable.

These attributions affect how we feel about a situation (emotional response) and influence our actions (e.g., whether we help someone).

Kelley: Covariation Model—focus on consistency, distinctiveness (unique sit or diff context?), and consensus (similar) to understand behaviour.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations lead to behaviours that make those expectations come true.

• Stereotype: A belief about someone based on the group they belong to. 

• Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward someone on the basis of their group.

• Discrimination: Behaviours directed towards someone on basis of their group

The Bystander Effect

Definition: The more people present, the less likely someone is to help.

Reasons: Ambiguity and conformity.

Avoiding It: Make the situation clear to reduce uncertainty.

Deindividuation

When people feel anonymous in a group, they may act in ways they wouldn’t normally because they feel less accountable.

In a large crowd, someone might shout or behave aggressively because they feel they can’t be singled out.