psych

Scientific Method

Observe, question, hypothesize, experiment, analyze, conclude, replicate

Experimental Research

A method in which the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on one or more dependent variables while controlling for extraneous variables.

Hypotheses

Testable statement predicting the relationship between two variables

Sampling

Process of selecting a subset of individuals from a population to represent the whole population

Variables

IV: variable that is manipulated; DV: variable being tested; CV: controls

Reliability

The CONSISTENCY, AKA SAME RESULTS EVERY TIME

Validity

The ACCURACY. Like a scale measuring the weight correctly

Statistical Significance

Indicates whether the results of a study are likely due to chance or if there is a real effect, often determined by a p-value, with a threshold (e.g., p < 0.05) indicating significance.

P-hacking

Manipulating data or analyses until statistically significant results are obtained.

HARKing

Hypothesizing After Results are Known.

Selective Reporting

Only reporting positive or significant results.

Good Data Visualization Practices

Clear labels, appropriate scales, avoiding misleading representations.

Bad Data Visualization Practices

Misleading scales, cherry-picking data, excessive use of 3D graphs that distort perception.

Replication Crisis

Refers to the growing awareness that many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to replicate, raising concerns about the reliability of research findings.

Scientific Misconduct

Fabrication: making up data; Falsification: manipulating research or data; Plagiarism: using someone else's data/work.

Secondary Analysis

Involves using existing data collected by others for new research questions.

Cross-Sectional Research Designs

Involve observing a sample at one point in time, providing a snapshot of the current state of the population.

Longitudinal Research Designs

Involve observing the same sample over an extended period, allowing researchers to study changes and development over time.

Strengths of Cross-Sectional Designs

Quick, cost-effective, and provides a snapshot of the population.

Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Designs

Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, and may be affected by cohort effects.

Strengths of Longitudinal Designs

Can study development and changes over time, establish sequences of events.

Weaknesses of Longitudinal Designs

Time-consuming, expensive, subject to participant attrition.

Advantages of Traditional Laboratory Experiments

High control over variables, can establish causality.

Limitations of Traditional Laboratory Experiments

May lack ecological validity, and artificial settings may influence behavior.

Field Experiments

Conducted in natural settings, high ecological validity, but harder to control extraneous variables.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural environments, high ecological validity, but no control over variables.

Intervention studies

Studies that involve introducing a treatment or intervention to study its effects on participants.

Randomized controlled trial (RCT)

A study design where participants are randomly assigned to treatment or control groups.

Control Group

A group that does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Blinding

A method where participants and/or researchers are unaware of group assignments to reduce bias.

Strengths of RCTs

High internal validity and the ability to establish causality.

Weaknesses of RCTs

Can be expensive and time-consuming, and may lack external validity.

Structuralism

Early school of psychology, breaks down the basics of psychological concepts such as analyzing sensations/images/feelings

Functionalism

Considers mental life and behavior, focusing on the purpose of consciousness for the environment

Psychoanalysis

Therapeutic approach and theory, focusing on unconscious motivations and conflict based on schema

Behaviorism

School of psychology that studies OBSERVABLE behavior

Classical Conditioning

When two stimuli are repeatedly paired and naturally produces a response, a neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

Learning process in which behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow rewards and punishments

Social Learning Theory

We learn through observing and role models

Genetic Epistemology

Origins of knowledge, and how children develop over time

Humanistic/Positive Psychology

Emphasizes individual growth, free will, and self-actualization (MASLOW)

Social psychology

How people think in the presence of others

Psychometrics

Theory and technique of psychological measurement

Cognitive psychology

Perception/memory/problem solving; involves understanding how people process and store information

Neuropsychology

How brain function affects behavior and cognition, focusing on brain injuries and neurological disorders

Eugenics

Improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding and sterilization

Conversion therapy

Aimed at changing an individuals sexual orientation or gender identity

NULL hypothesis

There is no effect or no difference; the default assumption that we want to test against

Alternative Hypothesis

There is an effect/difference, contrasting the null hypothesis

One-tailed/Directional hypothesis

This means it predicts a direction, will it be a positive or negative

Two Tailed/Non-directional hypothesis

There will be an effect but does not specify the direction

Qualitative

Nonnumerical

Quantitative

Numerical data and statistical data

Within subject

Within subject is a repeated measures design where participants perform both trials

Between Subject

Between subject is an independent measures design where participants perform one trial each and this is compared

Hemisphere

One of two halves of the brain

Lobe

A major division of the brain, including frontal/parietal/temporal/occipital

Sulci

Increases surface area on the brain

Gyrus

Ridges between sulcus

Homunculus

Distorted human figure drawn to reflect relative sensory or motor space our body parts occupies on the cerebral cortex

Neuron

Nerve cell

Nerve

A bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system

Dendrite

Branch like structures that RECEIVE MESSAGES

Soma

Cell body

Axon

The long thin projection that transmits electrical impulses

Myelin

A sheath which insulates the axons and speeds up nerve transmission

Schwann Cell

A type of glial cell that produces myelin

Potential difference

Difference in electrical charge

Saltatory conduction

Jumping of action potentials from one node of Ranvier to the next, increasing the speed of conduction

Presynaptic

Sending neuron

Post synaptic

Receiving neuron

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse

Neuroreceptor

Chemical proteins that bind neurotransmitters

Vesicles

Membrane-bound sacs that store neurotransmitters

Potentiation

An increase in synaptic strength

Summation

Process of adding up postsynaptic potentials to generate action potential

Gap Junction

Specialized intercellular connection that facilitates direct cell to cell communication

Network

Group of interconnected neurons that work together to perform a function

Fasciculus

A bundle of nerve fibers in the central nervous system; language production and perception

Cognitive Neuroscience

Study of neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes

Cardio-centrism

Ancient belief that the heart is the center of thought of and emotion

Encephalo-centrism

Belief that brain is the center of thought and emotion

Cranial nerves

Nerves that emerge from the brain including the brainstem, in contrast to spinal nerves

Phrenology

Outdated theory that linked bumps on the skull to personality traits

Localization

The idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific functions

Aggregate Field

Theory that the whole brain participates in behavior

Reticular Theory

An early hypothesis suggesting that the nervous system is a continuous network

Neuron Doctrine

The concept that the nervous system is made of individual cells called neurons

Homunculi

Representations of the body based on the somatosensory cortex map

Structural Imaging

MRI AND CT SCANS, producing images of anatomy

Functional Imaging

fMRI and PET scans, producing images/data that measure brain activity

Temporal Resolution

Ability to precisely measure when an event occurs in the brain

Electromagnetic Methods

Techniques like EEG/MEG that measure electrical activity in the brain

Hemodynamic Methods

Techniques like fMRI that measure blood flow changes in the brain

Spatial Resolution

Ability to precisely measure where an event occurs in the brain

Affective Neuroscience

Study of the neural mechanisms of emotion

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform the same action

Default-Mode Network

A network of brain regions that are active when the mind is at rest and not focused on the external environment

Consciousness

The state of being aware and being able to think about oneself and the environment

Hemi-spatial neglect

A condition in which a person ignores one side of their body or environment