BIO EXAM

Haploid

1 Copy of each chromosome

Diploid

2 copies of each chromosomes

Gene

A basic unit of information

chromosome theory of inheritance

All genes are located on chromosomes

Allele

Different versions of a given gene

mutation

any change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene

locus

Physical location of a gene

heterozygous

One dominant allele, one recessive allele

homozygous

two copies of a recessive allele

SRY genes

Determine sex

Sex linked gene

located on the sex chromosome (x or y)

sex chromosome

Chromosome that carries the gene that determines sex

genotype

The alleles of the gene

phenotype

The physical expression of a gene

mutation types

Deletion, Inversion, translation, and duplication

deletion

A piece of the chromosome breaks off

inversion

Fragment of chromosome breaks off and reattaches to the other side

translocation

A broken piece of chromosome reattaching to another non-homologous chromosome (sex chromosome)

duplication

A longer chromosome, resulting into copies of a particular chromosome

polygenetic traits

Single trades controlled by one or more genes (Kevin Hart versus Shaquille O’Neal)

autosomes

All other chromosomes, not including sex chromosomes

epistasis

when the phenotypic effect of a gene’s alleles depends on the presence of alleles for another (labs)

independent assortment of chromosomes

Alleles of two or more genes separated into gametes independently of one another

Random fertilization

Sperm fertilizing egg randomly

incomplete dominance

alleles produce a third phenotype

codominance

Both phenotypes are visible in the heterozygous

pleiotropic genes

A single gene influences Two more distinctly different traits (albanism)

complex traits

Can’t be predicted by Mendel’s method (steele)

Gregor Mendel

Chromosome theory of inheritance, Credited with the understanding of genetics

New combination of allele methods

Crossing Over, Independence, form of chromosomes, And random fertilization

Crossing over

A reciprocal exchange of non-sister Chromatids and prophase one of meiosis

pedigree chart

Shows genetic relationships (family tree)

Circles : Female

Square: Mail

Blue: Unaffected

Red: Affected

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

genetic materials that makes up genes

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides

Rosalind Franklin

photographed the first DNA structure

Nucleotides

sugar combined with a phosphate group and a base compound

DNA Replication

the duplication of a DNA molecule

Semiconservative replicatoin

the mechanism of DNA replication in all known cells

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

a lab technique that can produce millions of copies of a targeted DNA sequece

Restriction enzymes

cut DNA into fragments

Gel electrophoresis

separates DNA fragments based on theri sizes

Identical twins

fertilized egg splitting, monozygotic

Fraternal twins

two eggs being released at the same time, dizygotic

Transcription

conversion of DNA-based sequence of nucleotides into and RNA-based sequence

Translation

making proteins based on instructions provided by mRNA

Genetic Code

a set of rules used to translate information encoded within genetic material into proteins

Codon

sets of 3 nucleotides that tell the ribosomes which amino acid to add

Start codon

start every gene

Stop codon

communicate “stop” in the DNA sequence

Envelope protein

disguises the virus, allows it to attach to host cells

Viral envelope

a lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds the capsid of some viruses

Nucleocapsid

protects DNA/RNA

Gene Expression

Process in which a cell reads a gene’s genetic code to create proteins that the cell needs

Gene promoters

function as an on/off switch for transcription

Gene regulation

enables organisms to change which genes they express in response to internal signals from inside the body or external cues in the enviorment

Traditional vaccines

manufacture envelope proteins for injection (15mths to make)

Regulatory DNA

part of a gene that controls gene transcription with help from regulatory proteins

Regulatory protein

interaction with signals from the environment and regulatory DNA to control gene expression

Phenotypic plasticity

a change in gene expression due to environmental influences

Housekeeping genes

maintenance of cellular activities in all kinds of cells

Cell differentiation

Allows the daughter cells to become specialized for a specific set of functions.

Noncoding DNA

DNA that does not code

Spacer DNA

noncoding DNA that separates one gene from another

Introns

noncoding sections interspersed with the coding regions of a gene

Exons

a DNA sequence that is present in a messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript

Retroviruses

a class of virus that works retroactively (HIV, T-cell Leukemia)

Reverse transcriptase

a ribosome-like structure that copies RNA into DNA

Integrase

an enzyme produced by a retrovirus that integrates its genetic information into that of the host cell it affects.

Point mutations

when a single base is altered

Insertion point mutation

a type of mutation that occurs when one more nucleotides are added to a DNA segment

Deletion point mutation

a genetic mutation that removes a single nucleobase from a DNA sequence

Substitution point mutation

occurs when one base is substituted for another DNA sequence

Frameshift mutation

alters the protein to the point that it destroys the normal function of the protein

Silent mutation

causes no change in the structure of the protein and, therefore, no change in the phenotype of the organism

DNA Chemical Compounds

Adenine (A)

Cytosine (C)

Guanine (G)

Thymine (T)

RNA Chemical Compounds

Adenine (A)

Cytosine (C)

Guanine (G)

Uracil (U)

mRNA vaccines

inject mRNA that codes for envelope proteins (8mths to clear clinical trials)

Tumor

a single cell that divides without restraint, leads to cell mass

Benign

non invasive tumor

Malignant

tumor cells being invading neighboring cells

Angiogenesis

the tumor connects to the blood supply, enabling it to increase in size

Metastasis

the migration and spread of tumor cells to other parts of the body (organs)

Positive growth regulator

a protein that binds to DNA and increases the transcription of a geneN

Negative growth regulator

can prompt programmed cell death to eliminate damaged cells

Oncogene

cancer-causing cell

Proto-oncogene

code for positive growth regulators

CRISPR

a natural defense mechanism in bacteria adapted by scientist in a lab

Tumor suppressor genes

code for negative growth regulators

p53 gene

a tumor suppressor gene

Genetic engineering

makes genes and inserts them into living organisms, or takes genes from one organism and insert them into another

Gene gun

shoots DNA into organisms

RNAi crops

produce a protein that destroys specific RNA in insects

BT crops

a type of bacteria that produces a protein that kills mosquito larvae

DNA cloning

taking artificially made DNA and inserting it into a single-celled organism to replicate and transform the gene

Asymmetrical cell division

process where the asymmetric inheritance of cellular components during mitosis defines the fate for each daughter cell

Unitpotent stem cells

only capable of making a single cell type (skin cells, hair follicles)

Adult stem cell

Multipotent stem cells

can differentiate into a limited number of specialized tissues

Adult stem cells

Pluripotent stem cells

give rise to nearly any human cell type; not including the birth sac

Embryonic stem cell

Totipotent stem cells

give rise to ALL human cells\

Embryonic stem cell

Adult stem cells

give rise to only a few specialized cells

Unipotent and Multipotent stem cells