Studied by 14 peopleHaploid
1 Copy of each chromosome
Diploid
2 copies of each chromosomes
Gene
A basic unit of information
chromosome theory of inheritance
All genes are located on chromosomes
Allele
Different versions of a given gene
mutation
any change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene
locus
Physical location of a gene
heterozygous
One dominant allele, one recessive allele
homozygous
two copies of a recessive allele
SRY genes
Determine sex
Sex linked gene
located on the sex chromosome (x or y)
sex chromosome
Chromosome that carries the gene that determines sex
genotype
The alleles of the gene
phenotype
The physical expression of a gene
mutation types
Deletion, Inversion, translation, and duplication
deletion
A piece of the chromosome breaks off
inversion
Fragment of chromosome breaks off and reattaches to the other side
translocation
A broken piece of chromosome reattaching to another non-homologous chromosome (sex chromosome)
duplication
A longer chromosome, resulting into copies of a particular chromosome
polygenetic traits
Single trades controlled by one or more genes (Kevin Hart versus Shaquille O’Neal)
autosomes
All other chromosomes, not including sex chromosomes
epistasis
when the phenotypic effect of a gene’s alleles depends on the presence of alleles for another (labs)
independent assortment of chromosomes
Alleles of two or more genes separated into gametes independently of one another
Random fertilization
Sperm fertilizing egg randomly
incomplete dominance
alleles produce a third phenotype
codominance
Both phenotypes are visible in the heterozygous
pleiotropic genes
A single gene influences Two more distinctly different traits (albanism)
complex traits
Can’t be predicted by Mendel’s method (steele)
Gregor Mendel
Chromosome theory of inheritance, Credited with the understanding of genetics
New combination of allele methods
Crossing Over, Independence, form of chromosomes, And random fertilization
Crossing over
A reciprocal exchange of non-sister Chromatids and prophase one of meiosis
pedigree chart
Shows genetic relationships (family tree)
Circles : Female
Square: Mail
Blue: Unaffected
Red: Affected
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
genetic materials that makes up genes
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides
Rosalind Franklin
photographed the first DNA structure
Nucleotides
sugar combined with a phosphate group and a base compound
DNA Replication
the duplication of a DNA molecule
Semiconservative replicatoin
the mechanism of DNA replication in all known cells
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
a lab technique that can produce millions of copies of a targeted DNA sequece
Restriction enzymes
cut DNA into fragments
Gel electrophoresis
separates DNA fragments based on theri sizes
Identical twins
fertilized egg splitting, monozygotic
Fraternal twins
two eggs being released at the same time, dizygotic
Transcription
conversion of DNA-based sequence of nucleotides into and RNA-based sequence
Translation
making proteins based on instructions provided by mRNA
Genetic Code
a set of rules used to translate information encoded within genetic material into proteins
Codon
sets of 3 nucleotides that tell the ribosomes which amino acid to add
Start codon
start every gene
Stop codon
communicate “stop” in the DNA sequence
Envelope protein
disguises the virus, allows it to attach to host cells
Viral envelope
a lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds the capsid of some viruses
Nucleocapsid
protects DNA/RNA
Gene Expression
Process in which a cell reads a gene’s genetic code to create proteins that the cell needs
Gene promoters
function as an on/off switch for transcription
Gene regulation
enables organisms to change which genes they express in response to internal signals from inside the body or external cues in the enviorment
Traditional vaccines
manufacture envelope proteins for injection (15mths to make)
Regulatory DNA
part of a gene that controls gene transcription with help from regulatory proteins
Regulatory protein
interaction with signals from the environment and regulatory DNA to control gene expression
Phenotypic plasticity
a change in gene expression due to environmental influences
Housekeeping genes
maintenance of cellular activities in all kinds of cells
Cell differentiation
Allows the daughter cells to become specialized for a specific set of functions.
Noncoding DNA
DNA that does not code
Spacer DNA
noncoding DNA that separates one gene from another
Introns
noncoding sections interspersed with the coding regions of a gene
Exons
a DNA sequence that is present in a messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript
Retroviruses
a class of virus that works retroactively (HIV, T-cell Leukemia)
Reverse transcriptase
a ribosome-like structure that copies RNA into DNA
Integrase
an enzyme produced by a retrovirus that integrates its genetic information into that of the host cell it affects.
Point mutations
when a single base is altered
Insertion point mutation
a type of mutation that occurs when one more nucleotides are added to a DNA segment
Deletion point mutation
a genetic mutation that removes a single nucleobase from a DNA sequence
Substitution point mutation
occurs when one base is substituted for another DNA sequence
Frameshift mutation
alters the protein to the point that it destroys the normal function of the protein
Silent mutation
causes no change in the structure of the protein and, therefore, no change in the phenotype of the organism
DNA Chemical Compounds
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)
RNA Chemical Compounds
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Uracil (U)
mRNA vaccines
inject mRNA that codes for envelope proteins (8mths to clear clinical trials)
Tumor
a single cell that divides without restraint, leads to cell mass
Benign
non invasive tumor
Malignant
tumor cells being invading neighboring cells
Angiogenesis
the tumor connects to the blood supply, enabling it to increase in size
Metastasis
the migration and spread of tumor cells to other parts of the body (organs)
Positive growth regulator
a protein that binds to DNA and increases the transcription of a geneN
Negative growth regulator
can prompt programmed cell death to eliminate damaged cells
Oncogene
cancer-causing cell
Proto-oncogene
code for positive growth regulators
CRISPR
a natural defense mechanism in bacteria adapted by scientist in a lab
Tumor suppressor genes
code for negative growth regulators
p53 gene
a tumor suppressor gene
Genetic engineering
makes genes and inserts them into living organisms, or takes genes from one organism and insert them into another
Gene gun
shoots DNA into organisms
RNAi crops
produce a protein that destroys specific RNA in insects
BT crops
a type of bacteria that produces a protein that kills mosquito larvae
DNA cloning
taking artificially made DNA and inserting it into a single-celled organism to replicate and transform the gene
Asymmetrical cell division
process where the asymmetric inheritance of cellular components during mitosis defines the fate for each daughter cell
Unitpotent stem cells
only capable of making a single cell type (skin cells, hair follicles)
Adult stem cell
Multipotent stem cells
can differentiate into a limited number of specialized tissues
Adult stem cells
Pluripotent stem cells
give rise to nearly any human cell type; not including the birth sac
Embryonic stem cell
Totipotent stem cells
give rise to ALL human cells\
Embryonic stem cell
Adult stem cells
give rise to only a few specialized cells
Unipotent and Multipotent stem cells
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