Phil first exam & midterm exam study guide

Metaphysics

The study of the nature of reality and existence

Epistemology

the study of how we know what we know, and how we can justify our beliefs.

Logos

a principle or idea that underlies something, or the act of thought and reasoning.

Mythos

a story or narrative that is used to explain natural phenomena or the origins of the world

Relativism

the idea that things are relative to the individual or culture, rather than being absolute.

Skepticism

the attitude or practice of doubting or questioning certain claims or beliefs.

Sophism

a type of reasoning or argument that is intended to be clever or deceptive, rather than truthful or logical.

Dialectic

a method of reasoning or argument that involves a discussion or debate in which opposing ideas are considered and evaluated.

Socratic Ignorance

According to this concept, true wisdom or knowledge comes from understanding one's own lack of knowledge, rather than from thinking that one already knows everything.

Rhetoric

The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.

Physis and nomos

these two concepts can be used to explore the relationship between the natural world and the social or cultural rules and norms that govern human behavior

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Physis = Nature or natural world

Nomos = Law or custom

Hubris

excessive pride or arrogance that leads an individual to believe that they are better or more important than others.

Techne

Art or craft,

the idea of practical skill or knowledge, and the ability to use this skill or knowledge to create or produce something.

Dogmatism

the tendency to hold onto one's beliefs or opinions rigidly and without considering other viewpoints.

Atomism

A theoretical approach that regards something as interpretable through analysis into distinct, separable, and independent elementary components.

Explain how myths function as stories about ultimate beginnings and accounts of reality.

explains the origins of the world, human beings, and natural phenomena

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function as accounts of reality, providing explanations for the way the world works and for the events and occurrences that take place in it.

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function as moral or ethical guides, providing examples of how to behave or how to live a good life

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attempts to understand and make sense of the world and our place in it.

recount the role of the gods in relation to human existence, for the ancient Greeks, and the importance of honor and glory.

the role of the gods in ancient Greek culture was to provide guidance, protection, and support to human beings.

Honor was associated with bravery, strength, and loyalty, and was earned through deeds and achievements.

Glory, on the other hand, was associated with fame and renown, and was earned through acts of greatness or valor.

achieving honor and glory was an important part of living a good life, and was seen as a way to earn the favor of the gods.

Explain why early Greek philosophers were dissatisfied with mythological accounts of reality

they believed that these stories were not based on empirical evidence or logical reasoning.

Describe the basic parameters of these philosophical problems: the problem of appearance and reality; the problem of the one and the many; the problem of order and constant change

the problem of appearance and reality is the idea that what we see or perceive may not always match up with what is truly real or true.

the problem of the one and the many is the idea that individual things are part of a larger whole, and that understanding the relationship between the two can be challenging or complex.

the problem of order and constant change is the idea that the world is always changing, but that it also has certain stable or predictable patterns or structures

Recount Anaximander's argument for the existence of "The Boundless” and Xenophanes' criticism of mythological accounts of the gods as immoral and shameful, who act as barbaric humans.

Anaximander argued that there was a fundamental substance or principle that was the source of all other things in the universe.

Xenophanes criticized mythological accounts of the gods as being immoral and shameful, and argued that they did not provide a true or accurate understanding of the divine.

What is Anaximander’s argument that rainbows, and all such natural phenomena, should be explained from what can be observed with the senses and not personified as evidence of the gods.

Anaximander argued that natural phenomena, such as rainbows, should be understood based on what can be observed and understood through the senses, rather than being attributed to the actions of the gods.

Explain Heraclitus' use of the term “Logos:” the order of all things in flux and in opposition, as well as his conception of wisdom = the understanding of this "Logos."

Heraclitus believed that Logos was the fundamental principle or law that governed the universe, and that wisdom was the understanding of this principle.

Explain Heraclitus' conception of the problem of the one and the many. How/why is it a seemingly intractable problem

Heraclitus believed that the problem of the one and the many was a seemingly intractable problem because the one and the many were constantly in flux, and could not be understood or defined in a fixed or static way.

This was seen as a fundamental characteristic of the world, and was something that could not be overcome or solved.

What is Parmenides' claim that only "the one" exists, no such thing as *many* things; Being is, not being is not, therefore … (be able to explain the results of this argument).

Parmenides claimed that only one thing exists, and that this one thing is unchanging, indivisible, and eternal. He believed that all other things were mere appearances or illusions, and that they did not have any real existence.

Explain his concept that "thought and being are the same," and how, if Parmenides is correct about the nature of reality, Heraclitus must be incorrect.

Parmenides believed that thought and being are the same, and that the act of thinking about something is equivalent to the existence of that thing.

If this is true, then Heraclitus must be incorrect in his belief that the world is constantly changing, as this would be impossible in a world that is unchanging and eternal.

What is the materialists’ conception of atoms and the void, and their attempt at a reconciliation of the one and the many.

the materialists believed that the fundamental building blocks of the universe were atoms and the void, and that these atoms were the one substance that underlies all of reality.

They attempted to reconcile the one and the many by arguing that the many things that make up the world are all composed of the same basic building blocks, and that these building blocks are the one substance that underlies all of reality.

Explain how their use of Parmenides' claims about Being, when blended with the notion of “the void,” allows for a reconstruction of Heraclitus’ concerns regarding order and constant change.

The materialists used Parmenides' claims about Being, when blended with the notion of "the void," to reconstruct Heraclitus' concerns regarding order and constant change.

According to Parmenides, Being is unchanging and eternal, and the void is the empty space in which change and motion occur.

By combining these two ideas, the materialists were able to develop a theory that explained how the world could be both stable and orderly, while also being in constant flux and change.

This allowed them to reconcile the concerns of Heraclitus, who believed that the world was constantly changing, with the ideas of Parmenides, who believed that the world was unchanging and eternal.

What “rhetoric” is defined as “the principles and practices of persuasive speaking” (regardless of the truth!); sophism is thus defined as “making the weaker argument the stronger,” in that “rhetoric can make a convincing case for absolutely anything?”

What are the skeptical implications of doing so?

rhetoric is often seen as the ability to make a convincing case for absolutely anything, regardless of whether that thing is true or false.

The skeptical implications of this are that it can be difficult to determine the truth or accuracy of a claim when it is presented in a persuasive or convincing manner.

Relativism: What is Protagoras' famous claim = "Man is the measure . . ."?

"man is the measure of all things."

this means that each person is the ultimate judge of what is true and real for them, and that there is no objective or absolute truth that applies to everyone.

*Physis* and *Nomos*: explain = nature vs. convention, natural law vs. human custom.

physis and nomos are used to describe the difference between natural law and human custom, and to understand the relationship between the two.

Explain Socrates' confession of ignorance = what kind of ignorance is it?

Socrates' confession of ignorance is a statement in which he admits that he does not know anything.

"Socratic ignorance," and it is a type of humble or self-aware ignorance.

Explain the “Socratic method” (dialectic) as a cooperative antagonism, and as a particular kind of epistemology that works by highlighting false opinion and working toward progressively better answers to fundamental questions.

the Socratic method is a method of cooperative argument and dialogue that is used to explore complex philosophical concepts.

It involves two people engaging in a dialogue or conversation, in which they work together to arrive at a better understanding or solution to the problem at hand.

This method is often seen as a particular kind of epistemology, or theory of knowledge, that works by highlighting false opinions and working toward progressively better answers to fundamental questions.

How is Socrates __unlike__ the Sophists?

Socrates is unlike the Sophists because he was not interested in making a convincing argument for any particular position.

Instead, he used the power of dialogue and questioning to explore fundamental questions and ideas, and to arrive at a better understanding of the world.

Contrast the methods of the Sophists with Socrates’, particularly the difference between an attempt to merely persuade or win a debate (regardless of the truth) and a sincere search for truth (what Socrates calls “examination”).

The Sophists were interested in making a convincing argument for any position, regardless of its truth or accuracy, while Socrates was interested in using dialogue and questioning to arrive at a better understanding of the world.

Explain that for Socrates human excellence is a condition of the soul – *psyche* – developed directly from knowledge of universals: “the man who has learned anything becomesin each case such as his knowledge makes him.”

Socrates believed that human excellence is a condition of the soul that is developed directly from knowledge of universals.

He believed that knowledge of abstract concepts that apply to all things is essential for developing the soul and achieving human excellence.

Explain the three groups of people Socrates visits in search of wisdom, as he attempts to refute the oracle's claim that there is no one wiser than he.

Socrates visits three groups of people in search of wisdom -

politicians(leaders and rulers of society), poets(creators and purveyors of culture and art),

and craftsmen(the makers and doers of practical things) -

and finds that they are lacking in wisdom and understanding of the world.

He concludes that he is wiser than these people because he knows that he does not know, while they believe that they know more than they actually do.

What are the “mistakes” each group of people Socrates visits makes?

The politicians are overconfident,

the poets are swayed by their emotions,

and the craftsmen are focused on practical matters

Why does Socrates say that it is “better to be as I am”

Socrates believes that it is better to be as he is because he knows that he does not know, while the other people he has met believe that they know more than they actually do.

This makes him wiser than them, because he is aware of his own limitations and is willing to learn and improve, while they are not.

What kind of wisdom does Socrates possess?

Socrates possesses a wisdom that is characterized by self-awareness and a willingness to learn and improve.

Describe, in detail, the main idea in Socrates’ reference to the horse training argument: “. . . if your two sons were colts or calves . . .”

if someone has two sons who are colts or calves, they would not expect them to be able to run or perform any other tasks without first being trained and taught.

In the same way, knowledge and expertise must be taught and learned, and it cannot be expected to exist without proper training and education.

Summarize Socrates’ claim that he has been given a false reputation by those who did not understand the practice of philosophy

Socrates claims that he has been given a false reputation by those who did not understand the practice of philosophy.

He believes that these people have misunderstood his method of questioning and dialogue, and have therefore judged him unfairly.

As a result, they have spread false rumors and stories about him, which have given him a bad reputation.

Socrates asks a pragmatic question: why would I willingly corrupt my own fellow citizens?

Explain the importance of this question

it shows that he is not interested in corrupting the youth of Athens. He believes that his method of questioning and dialogue is an important part of philosophy, and that it is not harmful or corrupting.

Socrates points out exactly how Meletus' charge is contradictory. 

What exactly is that contradiction and how does Socrates then arrive at the conclusion that his conviction of these crimes will not be the result of a just trial but the result of “the slanders and envy of many people”

he accuses Socrates of both believing in gods and not believing in gods.

this contradicts the fact that Socrates has always been known for his belief in the traditional gods of Athens, and that he has never shown any interest in new or strange gods.

In precisely what way is Socrates like a “gadfly”

Socrates is like a "gadfly" because he is a constant irritant and annoyance to those around him.

He challenges and provokes the people of Athens with his questions and dialogue in order to make them think and question their beliefs.

What is the point of Socrates' response when asked to give his suggestion for an alternative punishment

the point of Socrates' response when asked to give his suggestion for an alternative punishment is that he does not believe that he deserves to be punished. He suggests that he should instead be rewarded for his service to the people of Athens.

What reasons does Socrates give for claiming that he should be given free lodging and free meals in the nicest retirement village in town?

Socrates gives several reasons for claiming that he should be given free lodging and free meals in the nicest retirement village in town.

He argues that he has always tried to do what is right and to serve the people of Athens, and that he has never done anything wrong.

He also suggests that he is old and has no other means of support, and that he therefore needs to be provided for.

How does Plato distinguishes knowledge from opinion, and explain how dialectic functions to change opinion into something justified by argument

Plato distinguishes knowledge from opinion by arguing that knowledge is certain and justified, while opinion is uncertain and unproven.

He also explains how dialectic functions to change opinion into something justified by argument, by challenging and evaluating beliefs and opinions in order to determine their truth or falsity.

Explain how mathematical examples show that we have some knowledge of the truth and why knowledge must be about things that endure

Plato uses mathematical examples to show that we have some knowledge of the truth because mathematics is based on eternal and unchanging principles and concepts.

in order to have knowledge, we must focus on things that are eternal and unchanging, rather than temporary and fleeting.

Explain how sensible “particulars” (i.e., individual souls or cities) relate to intelligible “universals” such as Justice, Beauty, or Virtue.

Plato argues that sensible "particulars" such as individual souls or cities relate to intelligible "universals" such as Justice, Beauty, or Virtue by participating in or copying these universals.

He believes that these sensible particulars are related to and influenced by the eternal and unchanging universals, and that they can therefore provide us with some knowledge of these universals.

How can a thinking person move “up” the Divided Line, according to Plato?

By engaging in the process of dialectic.

Through dialectic, individuals can challenge their beliefs and opinions, and can learn more about the fundamental truths and principles of the universe.

This process of moving "up" the Divided Line is called "the ascent to the Good," and it is seen as the ultimate goal of philosophical inquiry.

Recount how Plato’s depiction of an intelligible realm, which somehow affects the sensible realm of particular

Plato's depiction of an intelligible realm is a way of explaining how the eternal and unchanging principles and concepts of the universe can have an impact on the temporary and fleeting objects and events of the world.

The intelligible realm affects the sensible realm by influencing and shaping these particulars, and by providing us with some knowledge of the principles and concepts that shape the world.

Explain the Allegory of the Cave and the Divided Line

The Allegory of the Cave is a metaphor that Plato uses to explain the nature of reality and knowledge.

The Divided Line is a diagram that Plato uses to explain the relationship between the sensible and intelligible realms of reality.

The lower part of the Divided Line represents the realm of opinion and belief, while the upper part represents the realm of knowledge and wisdom.

What are distinction (between the sensible and the intelligible) functions within Plato’s metaphysics as a way to solve the problems of appearance and reality, the one and the many, and the problem of order and constant change.  

The problem of appearance and reality can be solved by recognizing that the sensible realm is the realm of appearance, where things appear to be one way, but may actually be another. (The sensible realm is where things appear to be one way, but may actually be another. )

The problem of the one and the many can be solved by recognizing that the intelligible realm is the realm of the one, where eternal and unchanging ideas and forms provide the underlying unity and coherence of the world. (The intelligible realm is where eternal and unchanging ideas provide unity and coherence. )

The problem of order and constant change can be solved by recognizing that the intelligible realm is the realm of order and stability, while the sensible realm is the realm of constant change and flux. (The intelligible realm is stable and the sensible realm is constantly changing. )

These problems can be solved by understanding the distinction between the two realms.

Explain Plato's reasoning wherein he claims that since we *do* have some knowledge, skepticism and relativism are refuted.

He uses mathematical examples and the distinction between the sensible and intelligible realms to show that there are some objective truths that can be known.

Therefore, skepticism and relativism are mistaken because they deny the existence of knowledge and objective truth.

How does Plato divide the soul (*psyche*) into three fundamental parts?

Name them and explain the role of reason in the soul

The rational part is the part of the soul that is associated with reason and knowledge. It is the most important and noble part of the soul, because it is the part that allows us to understand the world and to live a good and virtuous life.

The spirited part is the part of the soul that is associated with emotion and passion. It is the part that allows us to feel strong emotions, such as anger or fear.

The appetitive part is the part of the soul that is associated with desire and pleasure. It is the part that drives us to seek out pleasure and avoid pain.

Reason is the key to living a happy and fulfilling life.

What is the example of the Charioteer as it relates to the three-part division of the soul.

The example of the charioteer illustrates the three-part division of the soul and the importance of using reason to control and direct the spirited and appetitive parts.

When the rational part is able to control and direct the other two parts, the soul is in a state of harmony and balance.

When the rational part is unable to control and direct the other two parts, the soul is in a state of disharmony and imbalance.

Subjectivity

the perspective or viewpoint of an individual subject, as opposed to objectivity, which refers to the perspective or viewpoint of the outside world.

Objectivity

the perspective or viewpoint of the outside world, as opposed to subjectivity, which refers to the perspective or viewpoint of an individual subject.

Telos

End or purpose

the idea that things have a inherent purpose or goal to achieve

Teleology

the study of the purpose or goal of natural or human-made things.

Aristotle’s “categories”

Substance refers to the underlying essence or nature of a thing,

quantity refers to the amount or quantity of something,

quality refers to the characteristics or properties of something,

relation refers to the way in which two or more things are connected or related to each other,

place refers to the location of something,

time refers to the when of something,

position refers to the way in which something is arranged or positioned,

state refers to the condition or situation of something,

action refers to the way in which something behaves or acts,

and affection refers to the way in which something is affected or influenced by something else.

Entelechy

the inherent potential or inherent purpose of a thing, and the realization or actualization of that potential or purpose

Infinite regress

infinite regress refers to a situation in which a process or series of events continues indefinitely without coming to an end.

Circular reasoning

a type of logical fallacy in which an argument's conclusion is assumed to be true in the premise of the argument

For example, "I know that God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is the word of God, so it must be true."

Contingency

the idea that something is dependent on or contingent upon something else, and could potentially not exist or be different.

For example, the existence of a particular person may be contingent upon the existence of their parents, and the existence of a particular event may be contingent upon the actions of a particular person.

Necessity

necessity refers to the idea that something is necessary or inevitable, and cannot be otherwise

Primary Substance

primary substance refers to the idea of an underlying, fundamental substance or entity that underlies and gives rise to the existence and properties of all other things.

individual, particular things

Secondary Substance

general, universal categories or classes of things.

Dualism

the idea that there are two fundamental, distinct, and irreducible categories or types of things in the world.

Monism

the idea that there is only one fundamental category or type of thing in the world.

Manicheanism

A dualistic religious system

The system was based on a supposed primeval conflict between light and darkness. Good god (spiritual realm) and Evil God (material realm)

How are Aristotle's “*categories”* are both terms and actual categories of being

they refer to the different ways in which things can be said to exist or be predicated of one another.

Explain Aristotle's notion that all substance is *formed matter*

All substance is formed matter because it is made up of matter that has been given form or structure.

How is this notion of substance as formed matter is a critique of Plato's metaphysics

This challenges Plato's belief in the existence of eternal, unchanging forms and asserts that substance is not separate from matter, but is rather matter that has been given form.

What are “validity” and “soundness” in arguments?

An argument is valid if its conclusion follows logically from its premises, and it is sound if it is valid and its premises are true.

How is knowledge of forms different for Aristotle than for Plato?

for Plato, knowledge of forms is innate and not acquired through the senses, while for Aristotle, knowledge of forms is not innate and is acquired through the senses and through experience.

Explain the Four Causes and the concepts of “entelechy” and teleology

The material cause refers to the material or substance out of which a thing is made.

The formal cause refers to the form or design of a thing.

The efficient cause refers to the action or process that brings a thing into being.

The final cause refers to the end or purpose of a thing.

Entelechy is a concept that refers to the realization of a thing's potential or purpose.

teleology is concerned with the final cause, or the end or purpose of a thing.

Together, these concepts help us understand the nature of causation and the ways in which things come into being and function in the world.

Explain the natural phenomena by reference to the notion of an inner telos (goal) moving toward its own realization

The concept of an inner telos can help us understand the natural world and the ways in which things change and develop over time.

For example, a seed has an inner telos to become a fully-grown plant, and it is driven by an internal force that helps it grow and develop into its full potential.

Distinguish “essential” from “accidental” properties

Essential properties define the essence of a thing, while accidental properties are merely incidental or extrinsic to it.

For example, the essential properties of a dog might include being a mammal, having four legs, and having a tail.

The color of a dog's fur is an accidental property, because a dog can be any color and still be a dog.

How mathematics is possible, according to Aristotle, without Plato's Forms: abstraction. 

Abstraction allows us to understand and study mathematical concepts without relying on Plato's Forms.

Mathematical concepts are derived from the observable characteristics of objects, rather than being based on an underlying reality or ideal form.

For example, the concept of "two" is derived from the observation of objects that come in pairs, such as apples or socks.

“correspondence theory of truth”

The correspondence theory of truth is a way of understanding the relationship between language, reality, and truth.

For example, the statement "The sky is blue" is true because it corresponds to the fact that the sky is indeed blue.

How can induction as a method may be employed in a search for finding “first principles.”

Induction is a method of reasoning that allows us to move from specific observations to general principles.

For example, if we observe that all the swans we have seen are white, we may conclude that all swans are white.

What is the role perception plays in the inductive method

It provides the raw data that is used to form general principles.

For example, if we want to use induction to form a general principle about the color of swans, we must first use our senses to observe the colors of individual swans.

How do we “grasp” universals from our various perceptions of particulars.

What’s the role of *Nous* in this process?

This process involves using our senses to observe the world around us and to notice the common characteristics of objects and events.

For example, if we observe several different swans and notice that they are all white, we may form the general concept of "whiteness" by abstracting the common characteristic of white from the specific observations of individual swans.

The role of Nous, or intellect, in this process is to analyze and understand the information provided by our senses.

For example, when we observe several white swans and form the concept of "whiteness," it is our intellect that allows us to understand the meaning and significance of this concept.

What is the basic outlines of the so-called “problem of evil”

1. God is all-powerful and all-knowing.
2. God is perfectly good.
3. Evil and suffering exist in the world.
4. An all-powerful and perfectly good God would not allow evil and suffering to exist.

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The existence of evil and suffering in the world is incompatible with the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good God.

Explain Augustine’s attempt at a solution for “problem of evil”

Augustine's solution to the problem of evil is based on the idea that evil is a result of human free will, rather than being an inherent part of God's creation.

Evil is not a thing in itself, but rather a privation or absence of good.

What is Manichean Dualism

Manichean Dualism asserts that the universe is the result of the struggle between two equally powerful and eternal forces. (Good and evil, light and dark, spirit and matter)

How does Ambrose’s idea, that God could be thought of as immaterial, help Augustine overcome Manichean metaphysics   

Ambrose's idea of God as immaterial helps Augustine to overcome the limitations of Manichean Dualism and to affirm the existence of a single, all-powerful God.

God is a pure, transcendent being who is beyond the realm of physicality and the limitations of dualistic thought.

What are the implications of the reality of truth for Augustine: “we do not make judgments *about* them, as we judge about sensible things or even ourselves; we make judgments *according to* them”

Our judgments should be based on the reality of truth, rather than on our own subjective beliefs or opinions.

This implies how we approach truth and knowledge.

Give a detailed description of the “great chain of being”

According to the great chain of being, the universe is arranged in a hierarchical fashion, with different levels of being arranged from lowest to highest.

At the bottom of the chain are the most basic forms of life, such as plants and animals, followed by higher forms of life, such as human beings.

Above human beings are the angels, who are pure spirits, followed by God, who is the highest being in the hierarchy.

For example, plants provide food and shelter for animals, and animals provide food and resources for human beings.

In turn, human beings serve as stewards of the natural world and provide a link between the material world and the spiritual world.

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Why does Plotinus’ idea of the “emanation” of being from “the one” lead to a problem for Augustine’s Christian metaphysics: “emanation … is a necessary and continuous process”   

Plotinus' idea of emanation suggests that the universe is not created by a single, all-powerful God, but rather emerges from a natural and inevitable process. This idea challenges Augustine's belief in a fixed hierarchy of being and suggests that the universe is not static, but rather dynamic and evolving. This poses a challenge to Augustine's Christian metaphysics.

Explain the phrase, creation “ex nihilo”

Latin phrase that means "creation out of nothing."

The universe did not exist before God created it, and it was brought into being out of nothing by the power of God's will.

What is the difference between the notions of God as “everlasting” and God as “eternal”

The difference between the notions of God as "everlasting" and God as "eternal" is that the former suggests that God exists outside of time, but is also active within time, while the latter suggests that God exists outside of time altogether.

Explain the whole story about having “rightly ordered” loves (desires).

According to Augustine, our loves, or desires, should be ordered in a hierarchy, with the love of God at the top, followed by the love of other people and the love of material things.

Explain the idea that higher being has higher value and therefore ought to be loved, in contrast to what has less being

Augustine's idea that higher beings have higher value and should be loved is based on the belief that the value of a being is determined by its degree of being, with God, as the highest being, being the most valuable and worthy of love.

Why are we responsible for our “loves” (our desires) according to Augustine

Augustine believed that we are responsible for our loves because we have the ability to choose how we direct them.

What’s the difference between “simple ignorance,” which Socrates would use to explain human error, and *willing ignorance*, which Augustine claims is the cause of sin

The difference between "simple ignorance" and "willing ignorance" is that the former refers to a lack of knowledge or understanding, while the latter refers to a conscious decision to avoid knowledge or understanding.

Explain what it means to say “there is no efficient cause of evil”

Evil is not the result of a specific action or decision, but rather something that exists independently of any particular cause. (evil is not caused by something or someone.)

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Explain the role of skepticism within the so-called “collapse” of the medieval world view

The medieval world view was a comprehensive and hierarchical vision of the universe that was based on the belief in a single, all-powerful God who created the universe out of nothing.

Skeptics questioned the reliability of the Bible and other religious texts, and it suggested that human beings are not capable of knowing the truth with certainty.

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Describe the basic outlines of: “The World God Made for Us”

The universe is not a random and chaotic place, but rather a carefully designed and ordered creation that exists for the benefit of human beings.