Quiz #2 Review - Kinesiology

Functions of Bones

Support, Movement, Blood Supply, Protection, Mineral Supply

Types of bones

long, short, irregular, flat, sesamoid

Long Bones

longer than they are wide, shaft w/ 2 ends, most limb bones

Short bones

small and thick, roughly cube shaped

Flat bones

flat, thin, parallel surfaces, usually curved

Irregular Bones

various shapes that do not fit under other categories

Sesamoid Bones

short bones formed w/in a tendon, alter direction of pull of tendon to increase mechanical advantage, protect tendon from being pinched in joint

Epiphysis

end of long bone, articulating surfaces to form joints, nutrients from joint capsule, red/yellow bone marrow, compact bone exterior with cancellous bone interior

Diaphysis

“shaft”, marrow filled cavity, compact bone exterior, dense bone to withstand greatest force, vascular, supplied by arteries/veins

Epiphyseal Plate

Growth plate, found in long bones of children and adults

Epiphyseal line

line at which growth plate has fused to rest of bone after growth stops in late teens, adulthood, remnant of bone generating cartilage of child’s bone

Cancellous(spongy/trabecular) bone

epiphyseal interior, less dence than compact bone to reduce mass of bone, network of trabeculae aligned along stress lines, structure changes in response to stresses

Compact(corticol) bone

80% of human skeleton by weight, dense, interwoven matrix of bone pillars called osteons, provides strength and rigidity

Periosteum

regenerative sheath on outer layer of most bones, houses fibroblasts and osteoblasts for bone maintenance and growth, vascular channel for blood supply in and out of marrow, offers some support, connection point for tendones and helps distribute force

articular cartilage

smooth, slippery, insensitive, bloodless surface covering ends of long bones, cushions/absorbs stress of opposing bone in synovial joint during movement

Medullary Cavity

deepest part of bone, hollow and soft core of diaphysis, red bone marrow contains stem cells that differentiat into red white blood cells and platelets, yellow bone marrow has high concentration of fat stored, has stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts and osteoclasts, involved in formation of cartilage

Bone formation

30% organic compounds - collagen, marrow, blood cells

60% inorganic - minerals

10% water

Osteogenesis

formation of non-mineral collagen matrix called trabeculae

Ossification

deposition of inorganic hydroxyapatite onto matrix - combination of calcium containing compounds

Bone remodeling

healing and maintenance processes of skeleton

Remodelling

regenerating bones, recycle 5 to 7% of bone mass on weekly basis, complete new bone mass every 7-10 years, bones have new ability to repair/adapt to stresses, result of osteoclasts and osteoblasts

Greenstick fracture

partial/incomplete fracture, one side of bone fractured because of tension, other side is just compressed, common in children because their bones are softer and have more organic material and less inorganic material

Simple transverse fracture

fracture all the way through the bone, no displacement of fractured ends

Spiral fracture

jagged break, occurs when torsion/twisting load is applied to an extremity that is firmly planted on the ground, sharp edges of bone can cause secondary damage

Compression fracture

usually occurs in vertebrae, bone is crushed due to compression, inner scaffolding not strong enough to support forces, more common in people suffering from osteoporosis

Comminuted fracture

Occurs when high amount of force is applied, 2+ fragments break off, common in accidents

Compound/Open Fracture

bone breaks through skin, increased risk of infection

Depression fracture

Broken bone pressed inwards, deep to normal surface of the bone

Impacted Fracture

caused by impact of bone on bone, fragments tend to be forced into each other and surrounding tissue, more common in shoulder + hip from falls, increased severity with osteoporosis

Avulsion fracture

force from tendon/ligament pulls off a piece of bone, occurs anywhere on body, generally tendons and ligaments get damaged first from force, in children avulsion near growth plate where bone is weaker

PRIT

pain, reduction(resetting), immobilization, Time

Factors affecting healing process (Systemic)

age - children heal quicker, nutrition - poor nutrition/vitamin deficiency affects healing, general health - chronic illness depresses healing response, generalized artherosclerosis - decreased blood flow = slowed healing, horomonal factors - growth hormone enhance healing; corticosteroids slow healing, drugs - non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs slow healing, smoking - decreases healing through vasoconstriction

Factors affecting healing process (Local)

Degree of local trauma/bone loss, Area of bone affected, Abnormal bone, degree of immobilization of fracture, disruption of vascular supply

Classification of joints

fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

Synovial joints

permit movement between bones and have articular cartilage, joint capsule, joint cavity, bursae, intrinsic ligaments, extrinsic ligament, intracapsular ligaments

Articular Cartilage

located at ends of bones that come in contact with each other

Joint capsule

consists of synovial membrane and fibrous capsule surrounding joint cavity

Joint cavity

filled with synovial fluid, acting as lubricant for joint

Bursae

small fluid sacs found at friction points

Intrinsic Ligaments

thick bands of fibrous connective tissue embedded within joint capsule, help thicken and reinforce joint capsule

Extrinsic Ligaments

seoarate from joint capsule and help reinforce joint

Intracapsular Ligaments

ligaments contained in joint cavity but do not reinforce capsule itself

tendons

attach muscle to bone, located on each end of skeletal muscles and cross joint to attach bones

Ball & Socket (spheroidal) joints

“ball” at one bone fits into “socket” of another, allows movement around 3 axis

Gliding (plane/arthrodial) joints

flat/slightly curved bone surface glide against one another

Hinge (ginglymus) joints

convex portion of bone fits into concave portion of another to move in one plane

Pivot (trochoid) joints

rounded point of one bone fits into groove of another

Saddle joints

allow movements in two planes but no rotation, thumb

Ellipsoid joints

synovial joint allowing movement in two planes, wrist

Osteoporosis

where bones become weak and brittle with age/sex, bone resorption greater than bone deposit, results in decreased bone mass (lighter and porous)

Risk factors for Osteoporosis

Aging women (decrease in estrogen), insufficient exercise/overtraining, diet low in calcium magnesium protein, smoking, hormonal conditions, drugs

RED-S

The Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (Female Athlete Triad)

What is RED-S?

result of insufficient caloric intake or excessive energy expenditure, alters physiological systems including metabolism, menstrual function, bone health, immunity, protein synthesis, cardiovascular and physiological health, adopted from female athlete triad which is considered a contributing factor

Female Athlete Triad

increase risk of female athletes for higher incidence of bone fractures,
due to: menstrual dysfunction, low bone density, disordered eating, more common in sports that promote leanness

Signs and symptoms of RED-S and Female Athlete Triad

weight loss, fatigue, no concentration, stress fractures, irregular periods, other injuries, using laxatives, brittle nails and hair, sensitivity to cold, low heart rate and blood pressure, heart irregularities and chest paint, preoccupation with food and weight

How to fix RED-S?

1. increase energy intake - eat more, balance macronutrients, frequent meals to maintain consistent energy availability

2. adjust training - reduce training load, prioritize recovery

3. seek professional guidance - healthcare team, personalized plan, mental health support

4. foster supportive environment - educate and emphasize health rather than appearance

Mechanisms of injury

acceleration/deceleration, fatigue/overuse, weakness/imbalance, instability

Bursitis

because of function, bursae undergo lots of wear and tear, become inflamed, common in shoulder elbow hip, risk increases with age, rest to avoid further trauma, physiotherapy to strengthen surrounding muscle to support joint, resolves itself, re-inflammation common

Cartilage damage

damage to connective tissue found at articulating surfaces of bones, susceptible in sports with vigorous lateral movements, often repaired through arthroscopic surgery

Dislocations

occurs when bone is displaced from joint - caused by collisions, falls

Separations

more serious than dislocation, bones are dislocated but ligaments in joint are also damaged

Osteoarthritis

loss of articular cartilage at joints which increases risk of bone to bone contact, increasing friction between bones and leading to damage to surrounding bone and tissue

Iliotibial Band Syndrome

IT band runs down lateral aspect of thigh from ilium to tibia, thick band of connective tissue attaches tensor fasciae latae and gluteus maximus to tibia, help stabilieze knee when extended and hip abduction and flexion, overuse injury due to tightness of IT band, rubbing on femus creates knee/hip inflammation, reduce training, orthotics for hip/knee alignment, increase flexibility

Sprains

ligaments very resistant to stretching so prone to tearing, sprain occurs when ligament is overstretched, avascular nature of ligaments discourages natural healing, once one ligament is damaged, others in area have to try to compensate for instability and forces

PIER

Pressure, ice, elevation, rest

First degree sprain

microscopic tearing, minimal pain, limited range of motion, weakened strength, no visible discolouration/deformity, no audible sound

Second degree sprain

significant tearing of ligament, extremely painful, large amount of swelling, 30-80% decrease in motion, strength loss, cannot continue with normal function, may be able to palpate defect in ligament through skin, audible snap/pop

Third degree sprain

complete tear, no initial pain but lots later, loss of 80-100% range of motion, complete loss of strength, massive swelling and sicolouration, palpable and visible deformity, audible pop, ligament replacement surgery required

Common Knee ligament injuries

Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)

Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL)

Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL)

Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL)

Susceptibility to Sprains

large number of ligaments, ligaments that span large distance, joints that experience force in variety of locations

Rotator Cuff Tears

involve 1+ of 4 muscles (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis), three of muscles share common tendinous insertion on greater tubercle of humerus, when part of tendon is torn, all 3 muscles around joint affected, impacts overall stability of joint, severity of tear must be diagnosed by doctor