Hell IRL

Section: Vocabulary

Glycolysis

In: 1 Glucose, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP (Investment)

Out: 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH, 4 ATP (2 Net gain)

Krebs Cycle

In: 2 Acetyl-CoA, 6 NAD+, 2 FAD, 2 ADP

Out: 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2FADH2, 2 ATP

Electron Transport Chain

In: 10 NADH, 2 FADH2, Oxygen (O2)

Out: ~32 ATP, Water (H₂O)

Light Reactions

In: Light Energy, Water (H2O), ADP, NADP+

Out: Oxygen (O2), ATP, NADPH

Calvin Cycle

In: 3 CO2, ATP, NADPH

Out: Sugar(G3P), ADP, NADP+

Equation for Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6 H12 O6 + 602

Equation for cellular respiration

C6 H12 O6 + 602 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)

Adhesion

The substance clinging to a different substance.

Barr bodies

Inactivated X chromosome in a female cell.

Biotechnology

Use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.

Cohesion

Same molecules binding together.

DNA profiling

Determining an individual's DNA characteristics.

Differentiation

Cells become specialized in structure and function.

Fluid mosaic model

Model that describes the structure of cell membranes.

Gene cloning

Production of multiple copies of a gene.

Gene expression

The process by which the coded information in a gene is used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule or RNA.

Gene regulation

Ability to turn genes on and off.

Genomics

Study of whole sets of genes and interactions.

Homeotic genes

Genes that regulate the developmental anatomical structures.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of internal balance.

Hypothesis

A testable explanation.

Isotope

A different form of an element that has a different amount of neutrons.

Mutation

A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism’s DNA.

Nucleosome

Basic structural unit of DNA packing in eukaryotes.

Osmosis

Movement of water down its concentration gradient. (Movement of water from higher water concentration to lower water concentration).

Passive Transport (with examples)

Type of membrane transport that doesn't require energy (e.g., simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion).

Photosynthesis

Light synthesis.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Used to amplify a DNA segment.

Proteomics

Study of proteins.

Recombinant DNA

DNA made up of combining DNA.

Replication

Process of producing DNA.

Restriction enzymes

Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.

Selectively permeable

Membrane that allows certain molecules to go through.

Transcription

DNA to mRNA.

Transgenic

Organism that had foreign DNA inserted into its genome.

Translation

mRNA synthesis of protein.

Section: Chapter One

1. What are the characteristics of life? (Be able to apply to a situation)

Order, reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, response to environment, regulation, and evolution.

2. What is the hierarchy of life? (Be able to apply to a situation)

Atom → molecule → organelle → cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism → population → community → ecosystem → biosphere.

3. What is the difference between a prokaryotic and an eukaryotic cell? (Be able to identify both)

Eukaryotic has a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic doesn't.

Section: Chapter Two

1. What are the elemental building blocks of life?

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur.

2. Why do you think it is important for Biologists to know Chemistry?

All forms of life are made of chemical elements.

3. Be able to identify the difference between elements and compounds.

An element is an atom. A compound is a molecule bonded together.

4. Be able to figure out proton, neutron, electron, atomic number, atomic masses, and ions if given a periodic table.

(This is a skill-based question requiring the use of a periodic table.)

5. Be able to differentiate between ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

Ionic: Transfer of electrons. Covalent: Shared electrons. Hydrogen: Weak bond with a positive to negative hydrogen atom.

6. What is the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds?

Polar has unequal sharing of electrons. Nonpolar has equal sharing of electrons.

7. Why is water unique? How are the atoms bonded together?

Polarity, cohesion, high specific heat, polar covalent bonds.

8. Be able to apply the parts of a solution to an example.

Solute: salt or sugar. Solvent: water. Solution: salt water is a solution.

9. What does the pH scale represent, what are the numbers that are found in the pH scale, and what do they represent?

0 (acidic) → 7 (neutral) → 14 (basic)

Section: Chapter Three

1. Why is carbon unique?

Ability to form covalent bonds with many elements.

2. What are the hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino groups? Where are they found?

Hydroxyl (OH): Alcohols. Carboxyl (COOH): Fatty acids, amino acids. Amino (NH₂): Amino acids.

3. For the building blocks of life, what are examples, why are they unique, what are their building blocks and what are their functions?

Carbohydrates: Monosaccharide → Polysaccharide; Energy/Structure. Lipids: Triglyceride → Cell structure. Nucleic acids: Nucleotide → Genetic info, protein assembly. Proteins: Amino acids → Catalyst, structure, transport.

4. How can you tell sugar from an enzyme?

Sugar: ose

Enzyme: ase

5. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

Saturated has single bonds. Unsaturated has one or more double bonds.

6. How are fats different from oils?

Fats are solid. Oils are liquid.

7. What are the levels of structure of a protein? Why are proteins unique?

Primary (amino acid sequence) → Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet) → Tertiary (3D shape) → Quaternary (complex structure). Unique due to their shape.

8. What can cause denaturing in proteins?

pH or temperature changes, losing shape.

Section: Chapter Four

1. Be able to distinguish between the three types of microscopes, when each would be used, and what are the parts of a compound microscope?

Examples: Light, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). Parts include eyepiece, objective lens, stage, light source, etc.

2. How can you distinguish between a prokaryotic and plant and animal cells?

Prokaryote: No nucleus. Plant Cell: Cell wall, chloroplasts, large central vacuole. Animal Cell: No cell wall, no chloroplasts.

3. What does the Cell Theory say? Why is this important in Biology?

All living organisms have cells. Cells are the basic unit of life. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

4. Compare and contrast plant and animal cells. How are they different multicellular wise?

Plant cells have a cell wall. Animal cells do not. Multicellular plants have a tissue → organ → system. Multicellular animals have a tissue → organ → organ system.

5. What are the organelles of plant and animal cells? Should know their structure and function.

(Requires recall of the structure and function of the nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi, etc.)

6. In cells, what is the relationship between volume and surface area? What happens if a cell gets too large?

Volume increases exponentially. If cell gets too large, it divides (cell dies).

Section: Chapters Six and Seven

1. Why is cellular respiration important? What are the reactants and products?

Important: It produces ATP for life. Reactants: Glucose, Oxygen. Products: Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Water (H₂O), ATP.

2. Compare and contrast respiration to cellular respiration.

Respiration: Like breathing. Cellular Respiration: Is within a cell.

3. Why is NADH important?

Transfers H and ATP for cellular respiration.

4. What are the reactions in cellular respiration? What are their reactants and products? Where is most ATP produced?

Reactions: Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain. Most ATP produced: Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

5. Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic: Requires Oxygen. Anaerobic: No Oxygen.

6. What are redox reactions, how do they apply to cellular respiration and photosynthesis?

Redox: Transfer of electrons. In cellular respiration Glucose is oxidized, Oxygen is reduced.

7. How are organisms classified according to their energy production?

Autotrophs produce food. Heterotrophs consume other organisms.

8. Review the reactants, products, reactions, and where reactions occur in photosynthesis.

Reactants: CO₂, H₂O, Light. Products: Glucose, Oxygen. Reactions occur in: Light-dependent in Thylakoid Membrane, Calvin Cycle in Stroma.

9. How many turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to produce a molecule of glucose?

6

Section: Chapter Eight

1. Be able to analyze the results of plant and animal cells put into different concentrations of solution.

Hypertonic (more solute) → Water moves out (plant shrinks/plasmolyzes, animal shrivels). Hypotonic (less solute) → Water moves in (plant turgid, animal bursts/lyses). Isotonic (equal) → Water moves in and out equally (plant flaccid, animal normal).

2. What are the components of a cell membrane and their functions?

Phospholipids (barrier), Proteins (transport, signaling), Cholesterol (fluidity). It is a selectively permeable barrier.

3. What is the difference between passive and active transport? With examples.

Active: Requires energy (ATP), moves against concentration gradient (e.g., Sodium-Potassium Pump). Passive: Does not require energy, moves down concentration gradient (e.g., Diffusion, Osmosis).

4. What is the difference between phagocytosis and pinocytosis? Be able to apply to a situation.

Both are types of endocytosis. Phagocytosis: Engulfs large particles/whole cells. Pinocytosis: Engulfs extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules.

5. What is the difference between kinetic and potential energy? Be able to apply to a situation.

Potential Energy is stored energy. Kinetic Energy is energy of motion.

6. What are the two laws of thermodynamics? Be able to apply to a situation.

1st Law: Energy can't be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed. 2nd Law: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the disorder (entropy) of the universe.

7. Why is ATP important?

It provides and stores energy needed for processes in the cell.

8. How do enzymes function? Be able to apply to a situation.

Speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy.

Section: Chapter Ten

1. Be able to code examples of replication, transcription, and translation. Know what each process does.

Replication: DNA to DNA. Transcription: DNA to mRNA. Translation: mRNA to Protein.

2. Compare and contrast DNA to RNA.

DNA: Double helix, Deoxyribose sugar, Thymine, very long. RNA: Single strand, Ribose sugar, Uracil.

3. How is the DNA molecule put together? Relate this to the shape of DNA.

Phosphate-sugar backbone, nitrogenous bases pair (A-T, C-G). This structure forms the double helix.

4. Why is replication called semi-conservative? Compare and contrast the DNA molecule to the replicated daughter strand.

Each new DNA molecule is half old/half new. The daughter strand is an exact copy of the parent strand.

5. What is the flow of genetic information (the central dogma)?

DNA → RNA → Protein.

6. What is the relationship between exons and introns?

Introns are non-coding regions that are removed during splicing. Exons are coding regions that remain and are expressed.

7. What are the stages of translation?

Initiation, Elongation, Termination.

8. What are the different types of gene mutations, and their results? Be able to apply these mutations to an example.

Base-pair substitution, Frameshift (insertion/deletion).

9. Be able to interpret the relationship between codons, anticodons, and amino acids.

Codon: mRNA sequence. Anticodon: tRNA sequence. The anticodon matches the codon, and the tRNA carries the corresponding amino acid.

Section: Chapter Eleven

1. Why does cellular differentiation occur? Be able to apply with examples.

To specify the proteins of the cell. Gene expression is regulated.

2. What is the relationship between DNA and chromosomes with structure?

DNA is organized in chromosomes (DNA wrapped around histones) to package and manage genetic information.

3. Why do female calico cats form?

X chromosome inactivation.