AP Psychology Unit 0

Vocabulary flashcards for the psychology unit on research methods.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s actual ability to perform a task successfully, by a belief that one’s performance is better than that of others, or by excessive certainty in the accuracy of one’s beliefs.

Peer review

The evaluation of scientific or academic work, such as research or articles submitted to journals for publication, by other qualified professionals practicing in the same field.

Cultural norms

A societal rule, value, or standard that delineates an accepted and appropriate behavior within a culture.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.

Experimenter bias

Any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher’s behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe that after learning an outcome, one would have been able to for see its occurrence (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Operational definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Placebo

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants, mandatory by APA ethical standards.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Random assignment

In experimental design, the assignment of participants or units to the different conditions of an experiment entirely at random, so that each unit or participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any particular condition.

Confidentiality

A principle of professional ethics requiring providers of mental health care or medical care to limit the disclosure of a patient’s identity, their condition or treatment, and any data entrusted to professionals during assessment, diagnosis, and treatment.

Professional ethics

Rules of acceptable conduct that members of a given profession are expected to follow.

Informed consent

A person’s voluntary agreement to participate in a procedure on the basis of their understanding of its nature, its potential benefits and possible risks, and available alternatives.

Institutional review boards (IRB)

A committee named by an agency or institution to review research proposals originating within that agency for ethical acceptability and compliance with the organization’s codes of conduct.

Informed assent

A process through which minors agree to participate in clinical trials. This is different from informed consent, because minors cannot provide consent in the full meaning of the word, as they don’t meet the legal age requirements and are considered to be a vulnerable population.

Deception research

Any study in which participants are deliberately misled or not informed about the purpose of the investigation in order to avoid the possibility that their responses may be given to meet the perceived expectations of researchers.

Likert scale

A type of direct attitude measure that consists of statements reflecting strong positive or negative evaluations of an object. Five-point scales are common and a neutral middle point may or may not be included.

Single blind study

A procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental conditions under which they are operating.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of participants to give answers that are in accordance with social norms or the perceived desires of the researcher rather than genuinely representative of their views.

Structured interviews

A method for gathering information, used particularly in surveys and personnel selection, in which questions, their wordings, and their order of administration are determined in advance.

Placebo effect

A clinically significant response to a therapeutically inert substance or nonspecific treatment (placebo), deriving from the recipient’s expectations or beliefs regarding the intervention.

Qualitative research

A method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences.

Quantitative research

A method of research that relies on measuring variables using a numerical system, analyzing these measurements using any of a variety of statistical models, and reporting relationships and associations among the studied variables.

Falsifiability

The logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment.

Generalizability

The extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population.

Third variable problem

The fact that an observed correlation between two variables may be due to the common correlation between each of the variables and a third variable rather than any underlying relationship (in a causal sense) of the two variables with each other.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables. (from −1 to +1).

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Bimodal distribution

A set of scores with two peaks or modes around which values tend to cluster, such that the frequencies at first increase and then decrease around each peak.

Central tendency

The middle or center point of a set of scores.

Convenience sampling

Any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability.

Sampling bias

A systematic and directional error involved in the choice of units, cases, or participants from a larger group for study.

Directionality problem

In correlational research, the situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect.

Correlational research

A type of study in which relationships between variables are simply observed without any control over the setting in which those relationships occur or any manipulation by the researcher.

Effect size

Any of various measures of the magnitude or meaningfulness of a relationship between two variables.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative technique for synthesizing the results of multiple studies of a phenomenon into a single result by combining the effect size estimates from each study into a single estimate of the combined effect size or into a distribution of effect sizes.

Negative correlation

A relationship between two variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases.

Positive correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together.

Positive skew

When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the high end relative to the low end (e.g., when a test is difficult and few test takers do well).

Negative skew

When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the low end relative to the high end (e.g., when a test is easy and most test takers do well).

Skew

The degree to which a set of scores, measurements, or other numbers are asymmetrically distributed around a central point.

Percentile rank

The location of a score in a distribution expressed as the percentage of cases in the data set with scores equal to or below the score in question.

Regression to the mean

The tendency for extremely high or extremely low scores to become more moderate (i.e., closer to the mean) upon retesting over time.

Representative sample

The selection of study units (e.g., participants, homes, schools) from a larger group (population) in an unbiased way, such that the sample obtained accurately reflects the total population.

Variation

In statistics, the degree of variance or dispersion of values that is obtained for a specific variable.

Sample

A subset of a population of interest that is selected for study with the aim of making inferences to the population.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts (but doesn’t cause) the other.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Population

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.