Psychology Sem 3 2026

Definition of psychology

The scientific study of behavior (what can be observed) and mental processes (Thoughts, feelings and motives)

Psychology approaches (7)

Biological - neuroscience , genetics, structure, biochemistry

evolutionary - origins of behavior, adaptation, natural selection, reproduction, physical features

cognitive - cognition and mental processing, attention, perception, memory

humanistic - positive human values (ppl can choose their behavior)

psycho dynamic - unconscious mind, biological drives (s_xual, aggressive) and society demands,

behavioral - interactions with the environment (environmental determinants, deals with childhood)

sociocultural - needs cultural context (cultural environment)

4 goals of psychology

Describe

experiment

predict

change

Why is psychology a science

There is systematic scientific research

Independant and Dependant variables

IV - MANIPULATED VARIABLE

DV- MEASURED VARIABLE

Descriptive vs experimental

DESCRIPTIVE

• find out something new

EXPERIMENTAL

• determine the causation

• cause and effect

What are the ethics

• Research participants have rights

• Their risk must be balanced against scientific merit of the study

• Researchers MUST protect participants from physical/mental harm

• the IRB

What’s validity, and what are the 2

Basically research confidence.

INTERNAL

• does the DV truly change due the result of IV manipulation?

EXTERNAL - Applying it to the real world (if it be generalized)

The 2 groups

Control - placebo effect

experimental - manipulated IV

Bias types

Experimental biases

systematic biases

Research participant biases

Methods of DESCRIPTIVE research

NATURALISTIC

LABARATORY

SURVEY

CASE STUDY

The nervous system

CNS - brain and spineal cord
PNS -

• SOMATIC - voluntary movement

• AUTOMATIC - INvoluntary movement

  • sympathetic’ - fight/flight, stress hormones

  • parasympathetic - rest and digest, calming down, peace

sympathetic vs PARAsympathetic

Sympathetic

• pupils constrict

• stimulates saliva

• decreases ? heratrate

PARAsympathetic

• pupils dilate

• inhibits saliva

The parts of a neuron

the process of how neurons work

How do we study the brain?

1) Brain lesioning

2) Electrical recording (EEG)

• electroencephalograph

• Records brain activity

3) CT/CAT scans

• Computerized Axial tomography

• use XRAY to produce image of structure

4) PET scans

• Positron emission tomography

• requires radioactive tracer injection

• track amounts of glucose in brain (activity)

5) MRI scans

• Magnetic resonance imaging

• uses magnetic/radiowave

• shows clear brain images (no radiation or injections

6) fMRI scans

• FUNTIONAL Magnetic resonance imaging

• checks changes in oxygen levels in the brain

Neural development

The parts of the brain!! (as in the 3 sections) (what they include)

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

The brainstem

THE BRAINSTEM -

Alertness, basic survival functions, Breathing, heartrate, blood pressure

Medulla (oblongata)

• the long chunk

• controls refelxes, heart and breathing rate

Pons

• links the medulla and the thalamus

• sleep and arousal (as in)

• if damaged = impaired alertness and disrupted sleep

cerebellum

• the “other big chunk

• motor coordination, balance, fine motor skills

MIDBRAIN

rich in dopamine receptors (reward, pleasure, addiction)

Substantia Niagra

• has dopamine producing neurons

• input station of basal gangalia

• bottom of the brain

• dopamine into striatum

Reticular formation

• stereotypical behavious like walking sleeping chewing, turning attention to something

THE FOREBRAIN (largest part)

The limbic system - part of the cerebral cortex

AMYGDALA

• one on each side of the brain

• emotional awareness and expression

• detection of objects for survival/adaptation (food)

HIPPOCAMPUS

• formation and recalling of memories

• when damaged - alzeimers’s, retrograde and anterograde amnesia

THALAMUS

• relay station for sensory information (doesnt process it )

• Decide where the info goes

CEBERAL CORTEX

• Part of the outer layer of fore brain

• most recently developed part

• divided info left and right

NEOCORTEX

• Outermost , 80% of the cortex

• Related to the size of social groups (bigger social group, bigger neocortex)

the 4 lobes of the brain

THE OCCIPITAL LOBE - sight

THE FRONTAL LOBE - intelligence, personality

• PREFRONTAL - Planning, reasoning and self control

THE TEMPORAL LOBE - hearing (audio),memory and language processing

THE PARIETAL LOBE- Spatial location, attention, motor comtrol

Prefrontal cortex

most forward position of the frontal lobes involved with planning of behavior, attention, and judgement

Phineas Gage case

AREAS

Wernickes area

• located in the temporal lobe

• - processes speech comprehension

BROCA’s area

• located In the Frontal lobe

• production of speech

The area of each lobe

OCCIPITAL

• at the back of the brain

TEMPORAL

• above the ears

PARIETAL

FRONTAL

THE CORTEXES

Somatosensory

• front of parietal lobe

• processes body sensations

Motor

• rear of frontal lobe

• Controls voluntary movements

HEMISPEHERES

left hemisphere

• verbal processing

• speech

• grammar

right hemisphere

• spatial perception

• visual recognition

• emotion