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Required question:

Criminology

Exam Two – Study Guide

You will need to answer 7 (SEVEN) questions for this exam. Three

(3) required questions, and then you will choose another 4 (FOUR)

from a list of 7 (SEVEN).

While there is no required length, make sure to answer each

component of the question. Some questions are more detailed than

others.

Chapter Six

1) Required question: First, discuss Merton's strain theory (discuss

different adaptations in your answer and provide an example),

Agnew's general strain theory, and Messner’s and Rosenfeld’s

institutional anomie theory. Second, how are Merton and Durkheim's

definition of anomie different (permanency? relation to greed and

deviance?) different?

 For the first half of the question, discuss the following:

 Merton: you will need to define cultural

goals/institutional means, define each adaptation, and

provide an example.

 Agnew: discuss the types of strain and how strain and

coping will differ based on magnitude, recency,

duration, clustering, social support, and personality

(discuss 4/6).

 Rosenfeld you will want to discuss the role of

meritocracy, the imbalance of power among institutions,

and why high crime rates are intrinsic in capitalist

societies

Merton’s strain theory says society pushes success (money) but not everyone has equal legal means, causing strain and possible crime.

Adaptations:

• Conformity: accept both (school/job)

• Innovation: accept goals, reject means → crime (drug dealing)

• Ritualism: reject goals, follow rules

• Retreatism: reject both (drug use)

• Rebellion: replace both

• Merton’s strain theory explains that society encourages success, like money and status, but not everyone has equal access to legitimate means, creating strain that can lead to crime. People adapt in five ways: conformity (accept both), innovation (accept goals but reject means, like drug dealing), ritualism (reject goals but follow rules), retreatism (reject both, like drug use), and rebellion (replace both).

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Agnew’s general strain theory says strain leads to negative emotions like anger, which can cause crime. Strain comes from failure to achieve goals, loss of something positive, or exposure to negative experiences like abuse. Coping depends on the strain’s magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering. Strong, recent, long-lasting, and multiple strains increase the likelihood of criminal coping, while weaker strain with support leads to positive coping.

Rosenfeld says society focuses too much on money (American Dream).
The economy dominates family/school → weak control → more crime.

Messner and Rosenfeld’s institutional anomie theory argues that American society overemphasizes money and success, causing the economy to dominate other institutions like family and education. This weakens social control and increases crime, especially because meritocracy creates pressure even when opportunities are unequal.

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• Durkheim = temporary + greed + no rules

• Merton = permanent + pressure + blocked opportunities

Durkheim and Merton both discuss anomie, but they differ in important ways. Durkheim saw anomie as a temporary breakdown of norms during social change, where people’s desires become unlimited and linked to greed, which can lead to deviance. Merton, however, saw anomie as a more permanent condition caused by the gap between cultural goals and legitimate means, where the strong pressure to achieve success can push individuals toward deviance, especially through innovation.

Identify and explain the five techniques of neutralization according to

Sykes and Matza’s work. Provide one example of each

Sykes and Matza’s techniques of neutralization justify criminal behavior by, 1. denial of responsibility, offender claims they were pressured or forced into it “They made me do it, vandalize school.” 2. Denial of injury, in which the offender downplays or minimizes harm done, claiming “No one got hurt, the school can just clean up the vandalism”, 3rd. denial of victim, believes they deserved it “Its a senior prank, they deserve it as tradition.” Believing basically in karma.4th, condemning of condemners, offender shifts blame onto authority figures, such as police “Police are worse, they do worse stuff, and other seniors have done worse.” and appeal to higher loyalties, in which the offender commits a crime for an individual or a group, “I did it for my friends and senior tradition (group of seniors).

Required question: Identify the four elements of the social bond

according to Travis Hirschi's theory. Provide examples of each type of

bond. Finally, consider the policy implications of this theory: how

might society work to strengthen each of the four elements? Talk

about each element in your answer, while providing a specific policy

to illustrate your point

Hirchi’s social bond theory argues that a person cannot commit a crime if they have strong social bonds. Such as attachment, which is having close relationships to family, friends or teachers. Not wanting to disappoint them so straying away from crime. Commitment, one in which someone has invested too much into their goals, such as academic/education and career, not wanting to risk future opportunities, such as jobs, and ex. being in a sport and not committing a crime to stay in. Involvement, being busy in positive activities, leaving less time for crime, such as soccer. And belief, in which one accepts societal rules and laws as valid, having morals. Stopping at a red light obeying traffic laws. Policies strengthen weak areas, or prevent. Such as work based learning can help attachment, with having students connect to managers/mentors guide them through their academic goals, which also ties to commitment, as by being in a career or job in the field they want to pursue, then involvement, by being kept busy, and less time for crime, and then belief by teaching them responsibility and how to prepare for the adult workforce.

How does primary deviance differ from secondary deviance? How do

these types of deviance relate to labeling theory

Primary deviance is the first rule breaking act, in which does not significantly impact a person’s identity. Meanwhile secondary deviance is when the person gets labeled as a deviant and goes on to accept the label, and engages in more deviant acts. The types of deviance relate to labeling theory as it can become a self fulfilling prophecy, continuing crime or can reject it and head towards prosocial behavior.

What is the gene x environment interaction? List and describe the

three types of G/E correlations. Provide an example of each

Genes + environment together

• Passive: parents give both ex. aggressive parents pass down traits and create violent home

• Evocative: persons traits cause reactions from others, ex. aggressive child is treated harshly by teachers

• Active: people choose environments that match them, ex. teen chooses delinquent friends

Gene–environment interaction means that behavior is the result of genes and environment working together, not one alone. People with different genetic traits can respond differently to the same environment.

There are three types of gene–environment correlations:

Passive rGE happens when parents give both the genes and the environment to their child. For example, parents with aggressive traits may pass those genes to their child and also create a harsh or violent home environment, increasing the child’s risk for crime.

Evocative rGE happens when a person’s traits cause others to react to them in certain ways. For example, a child who is impulsive and aggressive may be treated more harshly by teachers or rejected by peers, which can push them toward antisocial behavior.

Active rGE happens when individuals choose environments that match their traits. For example, a teen with antisocial tendencies may choose to hang out with delinquent peers or join a gang, increasing their likelihood of offending.

First, what is a phenotype. Second, explain the three elements

concerning why there are differences in phenotypes. And third, are

shared or non-shared environmental factors more important in

phenotype expression

Observable Traits = genes + environment

• Genetics (inherited traits)

• Shared (family and home)

• Non-shared (peers, experience, individual experiences MOST important)

A phenotype is a person’s observable traits, such as behavior, intelligence, or personality. It is created by the interaction between genes and environment.

There are three main reasons why phenotypes differ:

Genetics (heredity) refers to traits passed down from parents, like temperament or intelligence.

Shared environment includes experiences that siblings share, such as parenting style, family income, and neighborhood. These are expected to make siblings similar.

Non-shared environment includes experiences that are different for each person, such as different friend groups, teachers, life events, or trauma. These make siblings different.

Required question: Discuss Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory.

In your discussion, make sure to discuss two assumptions of this

theory, social capital, turning points, and how turning points relate to

prosocial/antisocial behavior

Crime changes over time.

Assumptions:

• Behavior is not fixed

• Social bonds matter

Social capital = positive relationships (family, job)

Turning points = life events (marriage, job)

➡ Positive → prosocial (less crime)
➡ Negative → antisocial (more crime)

Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory explains how criminal behavior changes over the life course. The theory focuses on how social relationships and life events influence whether someone continues or stops committing crime.

Two key assumptions of this theory are:
First, behavior is not fixed, meaning people can change over time.
Second, social bonds matter, meaning strong relationships help control behavior and reduce crime.

Social capital refers to the positive relationships and support a person has, such as family, marriage, work, or community ties. The more social capital a person has, the more they have to lose, which discourages crime.

Turning points are major life events that can change a person’s path. Examples include getting a job, getting married, or joining the military.

Turning points can lead to both prosocial and antisocial outcomes. Positive turning points, like stable employment or a supportive marriage, increase responsibility and attachment, which can pull someone away from crime and toward prosocial behavior. However, negative turning points, like losing a job, experiencing abuse, or forming relationships with criminal peers, can push someone further into antisocial behavior.