Developing Through the Life Span

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Cell Body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

Dendrites

Neuron extensions that receive and integrate messages from axons, and conduct them toward the cell body.

Axon

The segmented neuron extension that sends messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Action Potential

A nerve impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction — the point at which neurons “talk” to other neurons (Snyder, 1984)—is called the synaptic gap  or synaptic cleft.  

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Refectory period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.  

all-or-none response

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Neurotransmitters

Neuron-produced chemicals that cross the synaptic gap to carry messages to other neurons or to muscles and glands.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Opioids

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Endorphins

“Morphine within”—natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Nervous System

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system division that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Automatic Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system division that controls  the glands and the muscles of the  internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic subdivision arouses; its parasympathetic subdivision calms

sympathetic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system subdivision that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system subdivision that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Endocrine System

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sits just above the kidneys and secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Glands

The most influential endocrine gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

EEG (electro-encephalograph)

A device that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to record waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. (The record of those brain waves is an electroencephalogram.)

PET (positron emission tomography)

A technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy (size and shape).

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique  for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

hindbrain

Consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.  

midbrain

Found at the top of the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain,  controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.  

Forebrain

Consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

Brainstem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing.  

Thalamus

The forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.  

Reticular Formation

Nerve network running through the brainstem and into the thalamus; plays an important role in controlling arousal.  

Cerebellum

The hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.  

Limbic System

Neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus; associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala

Two almond-shaped neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion and threat perception.

hypothalamus

A limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

Cerebral Cortex

A thin layer of interconnected neurons covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.  

Parietal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.  

Occipital Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.  

Temporal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes areas that receive information from the ears.

Motor Cortex

The cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

The cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes; registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.  

Association Areas

Cerebral cortex areas involved primarily in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Corpus Callosum

A large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from the surgical separation of the brain’s two hemispheres by severing the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.  

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Sequential Processing

Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

Parallel Processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem at the same time.

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Circadian Rhythm

Our internal biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body and brain systems are active. (Sometimes called R sleep.)  

Alpha Waves

Relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Delta Waves

Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying feelings of sleepiness.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder in which a person has uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder in which a sleeping person repeatedly stops breathing until blood oxygen is so low the person awakens just long enough to draw a breath

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder in which normal REM muscle paralysis malfunctions, and people act out dreams while sleeping, through physical movements (such as kicking or striking out) and vocal behaviors (such as talking or yelling).

Night Terrors

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during N3 sleep and are infrequently remembered.

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

Manifest Content

According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream.

Latent Content

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream.

REM Bound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Hindbrain? parts and function

Medulla, ponds, cerebellum. survival functions

Midbrain?

Some motor movement, auditory and visual info

Forebrain? parts and fuction

Cerebral Cortex, Thalamus, hypothalamus. complex cognitive messages, sensory functions, voluntary motor movements

Brainstem?

Automatic survival functions (breathing)

Medulla?

Part of the brainstem. heartbeat and breathing

Pons?

Part of the brainstem. movement and sleep

thalamus?

Sensory control center. receives all sensory info except for smell.

reticular formation?

Controls arousal, and acts as a filter sending different info to different parts, or not at all

Cerebellum?

“little brain” sensory input, movement output/balance, nonverbal learning and memory

Limbic System?

Amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus. Emotions and drives

Amygdala?

2 almond shaped clusters. Emotion and threat perception

Hypothalamus?

Maintenance activities (eating, drinking, temperature), governs the endocrine system, emotion and rewards

Hippocampus?

Processes conscience memories of facts or events.

Cerebral Cortex?

Thin layer over the brain that is the control and info processing center

Frontal lobe?

speaking, muscle movements, plans and judgement

Parietal Lobe?

Sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital Lobe

Info from vision

Temporal Lobe?

Info from the ears

Motor cortex?

controls voluntary movement