Lecture 14 and 15 - ENSC

What are air pollutants?

Airborne substances (gases, particulates, or biological matter) released into the atmosphere from natural or human sources that can harm health and the environment.

What are major concerns of air pollution?

Human health effects of smog, acidification of surface waters, crop and forest damage, and damage to built structures.

What are common sources of air pollutants?

Burning fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, and industrial processes like smelting.

What are the types of air pollutants?

• Gases: CH₄, CO, CO₂, SO₂, NOₓ, VOCs, chlorinated hydrocarbons, BTEX, dimethylmercury

• Aerosols: Sulfates, fine droplets of organic material

• Particulates: Soot (carbon), metal oxides and salts, organic-adsorbed particles

What is thermal inversion?

A weather condition that suppresses vertical air movement, trapping pollutants in the lower atmosphere.

What was the "Great Smog" of London (1952)?

A severe air pollution event caused by cold weather, coal burning, and an inversion layer, leading to 4,000 deaths and 100,000 illnesses.

What were the consequences of the Great Smog of London?

It led to the Clean Air Act, which phased out coal burning in urban areas.

What are some chronic health effects of air pollution?

• Nasal epithelium remodeling, sensory irritation

• Bronchitis, lung infections, lung inflammation

• Impaired lung function, fibrosis

• Asthma, inflamed bronchial tubes

• Carcinogenicity

• Cardiovascular toxicities

• Other inflammatory conditions

What are key air pollution regulations?

• 1955: U.S. Air Pollution Control Act

• 1970: Clean Air Act (NAAQS established)

• 1999: Canadian Environmental Protection Plan

• 2005: WHO Air Quality Guidelines

• Ontario Regulation 419/05: Based on EPA 2005

: What is ASPECT?

Airborne Spectral Photometric Environmental Collection Technology—a state-of-the-art airborne monitoring system used for environmental assessments.

How did the EPA respond to the East Palestine derailment?

• Led air-quality testing with ASPECT plane and mobile labs

• Installed booms and underflow dams

• Deployed vacuum trucks for cleanup

What is the difference between air sampling and air monitoring?

• Air sampling: Collects air over time for lab analysis to identify specific compounds.

• Air monitoring: Uses electronic devices to provide real-time readings of contaminants.

What compounds were monitored in East Palestine?

VOCs, hydrogen sulfide, benzene, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, phosgene, and particulate matter.

How was air sampling conducted?

: Samples were collected upwind, in work areas, and downwind to detect VOCs like vinyl chloride, n-butyl acrylate, and ethyhexyl acrylate.

what is vinyl chloride

Vinyl chloride is a colorless gas used primarily in the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. It is a known carcinogen and poses various health hazards when inhaled.

What was included in the indoor air screening program?

• Voluntary screening of 500+ homes within the evacuation zone

• Testing for vinyl chloride and other hazardous compounds

How was soil contamination addressed?

• Soil sampling and removal began on March 11, 2023

• Contaminated soil was staged for testing and disposal

• EPA oversaw Norfolk Southern’s waste disposal

What are the key concerns with vinyl chloride exposure?

• Used in PVC production, transported in liquid form under pressure

• Breaks down into hydrochloric acid, formaldehyde, and CO₂ in air

• Carcinogenic (liver, lung, brain, blood cancers)

• Can cause dizziness, nausea, and respiratory issues

What other chemicals of concern were released?

• n-Butyl acrylate (detectable by smell)

• Ethyhexyl acrylate

• Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether

• Isobutylene

• Acrolein

What were the reported health effects from the derailment?

• Nosebleeds, dizziness, headaches, rashes

• Psychological stress from evacuation and uncertainty

• Financial hardships due to property devaluation

What legal actions followed the derailment?

• EPA ordered Norfolk Southern to clean up the site

• Class-action lawsuits were filed against Norfolk Southern Railway

What were some lessons learned from the derailment?

• Need for better rail safety, including heat detectors on wheel carriages

• Lack of electronically controlled pneumatic brakes due to industry lobbying

• Improved environmental monitoring and transparency in risk communication

What are pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) classified as in the environment?

Emerging contaminants.

How do pharmaceuticals enter the environment?

• Excretion after consumption

• Metabolized and excreted as metabolites

• Washed off through personal care product use (“down the drain”)

What are Environmentally Persistent Pollutants (EPPPs)?

Pollutants from pharmaceuticals and personal care products that persist in the environment and may cause long-term ecological effects.

When were pharmaceuticals first detected in water sources?

• 1990s: Found in water affected by sewage treatment plant effluent

• 2000s: Detected in drinking water at lower levels

What technological advancements allowed detection of pharmaceuticals in water?

• mproved analytical detection methods

• Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometric Detection (LCMS)

• Parts-per-trillion sensitivity for organic contaminants

What are the main sources of pharmaceuticals in the environment?

• Individual use

• Hospitals

• Domestic pets

• Agriculture

• Industry

How do pharmaceuticals persist in the environment?

• Through landfill leachate

• Incomplete removal by sewage and water treatment plants

What are potential environmental impacts of pharmaceuticals?

• Long-term effects on ecosystem health

• Population-level impacts on reproductive ability

• Potential persistence across generations of non-target organisms

What is the regulatory challenge with pharmaceuticals in the environment?

• No existing regulatory guidelines for PPCPs

• Limited scientific data available

• Science-based regulations could take years

• Uncertainty about how to apply the precautionary principle

What was Health Canada's early stance on pharmaceuticals in drinking water?

There is no scientific evidence that would suggest that the drinking water is not safe at this point.”

What pharmaceuticals were detected in the Great Lakes (2014)?

• Metformin (diabetes)

• Ranitidine (acid reflux)

• Hydrochlorothiazide (diuretic)

• Acetaminophen

• Codeine

• Antibiotics

• Hormones

• 165+ pharmaceuticals & PCPs

Why have pharmaceutical detections in water increased?

• mproved detection technology

• Increased drug use (aging population)

What are the concerns for aquatic species due to pharmaceuticals?

• Intersex fish: Males developing eggs in their testes

• Potential species survival risks

• Unknown human health effects at low concentrations (ng/L)

What were the key findings from the Hyderabad, India case study?

• All environmental samples near pharmaceutical plants were contaminated with antimicrobials

• 95% had bacteria & fungi resistant to antibiotics

• 58,000 newborn deaths annually from multidrug-resistant infections in India

What are the stages of wastewater treatment?

• Primary treatment – Physical separation (oil, grease, dense particles)

• Secondary treatment – Bacterial biodegradation of contaminants

What are the limitations of wastewater treatment for pharmaceuticals?

• Not designed for pharmaceutical compounds

• Some pharmaceuticals break down; others do not

What are the limitations of drinking water treatment?

• Pharmaceuticals detected in Ontario drinking water (1-10 ng/L range)

• Higher levels for carbamazepine (300 ng/L) & bisphenol-A (100 ng/L)

What challenges exist in setting pharmaceutical safety regulations?

• Pharmaceuticals are biologically active by design

• Some act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)

• Human toxicity endpoints are uncertain

What is a proposed regulatory approach for pharmaceuticals in water?

• Use minimum therapeutic dose as the “acceptable level”

• Justified by clinical trial safety data

• Requires large safety factors due to high uncertainty

What are the main strategies to reduce pharmaceuticals in the environment?

• Reduce improper medication disposal

• Restrict veterinary pharmaceuticals

• Limit land application of manure/sewage sludge

• Improve sludge & industrial effluent treatment

What is the main solution to reducing pharmaceuticals in treated sewage?

• Enhance sewage/wastewater treatment

• Focus on removing PPCPs before release

What is a tertiary treatment step in wastewater treatment?

• Advanced treatment targeting PPCPs

• Chemical processes (ozone, UV, combined)

• Advanced filtration methods

• Required in some areas in Europe & for water reuse

What are other concerns related to pharmaceuticals in the environment?

• Other PPCP products (insect repellants, detergents, fragrances)

• Metabolites & degradation products

• Mixtures of contaminants

• Environmental impact beyond human health risks

What are key challenges in addressing PPCPs in the environment?

• More scientific research is needed

• Without changes, environmental levels will continue to rise

• Upgrading sewage treatment is extremely costly (billions in Canada, trillions globally)

• The precautionary principle is difficult to apply due to cost vs. risk trade-offs