Who was to blame for the Cold War?

What was the USA’s political system, and how did it shape its worldview?

A democracy with free elections, individual rights, and limited government; the U.S. believed freedom depended on stopping dictatorships and protecting political choice.

What was the USA’s economic system, and why did it oppose communism?

Capitalism—private ownership, competition, and profit; Americans believed capitalism made nations wealthier and saw communist state control as threatening freedom and prosperity.

What was the USSR’s political system, and how did Stalin justify it?

A one-party communist dictatorship; Stalin argued only a strong, centralised party could protect socialism, maintain order, and prevent anti-communist plotting.

What was the USSR’s economic system, and how did it contrast with the West’s?

A planned economy where the state controlled industry, agriculture, and jobs; the USSR viewed capitalism as exploitative and unstable, especially after the Great Depression.

How did Western intervention in the Russian Civil War deepen Soviet mistrust?

Britain, France, Japan, and the USA sent troops against the Bolsheviks (1918–21); Stalin believed the West tried to destroy communism from the beginning.

Why did Stalin distrust Britain and France for not stopping Hitler earlier?

He believed they let Hitler grow strong deliberately (appeasement) to push Germany eastward against the USSR, proving they wanted the Nazis to destroy communism.

Why did the Nazi–Soviet Pact increase Anglo-American suspicion of Stalin?

Stalin agreed to divide Poland with Hitler in 1939; Britain and the U.S. believed it showed Stalin was willing to cooperate with dictators when useful.

Why did the USSR feel justified in controlling Eastern Europe?

The USSR had been invaded twice through the region (1914, 1941) and wanted buffer states for security; Stalin argued Western hostility made this essential.

Why did the USA fear Soviet control of Eastern Europe after 1945?

America believed Stalin would replace Nazi domination with communist dictatorship, turning Europe anti-Western and threatening global democracy.

How did the Red Army’s advance in Eastern Europe create new tension?

As the USSR liberated territories, Stalin installed pro-Soviet administrations; the West saw this as communist expansion and the start of an empire.

How did the USSR establish control over Poland by 1947?

Soviet troops remained post-liberation. A new government dominated by pro-Soviet "Lublin" Poles was installed in 1945. Opposition leaders were arrested and murdered. Rigged elections in 1947 gave communists 80% of the vote.

How did the USSR establish control over Romania by 1947?

Soviet troops remained post-liberation. Communists were given key roles in a 1945 coalition. They gradually took over the police. Rigged 1946 elections gave communists 90% of the vote. The opposition leader faced a show trial in 1947 and King Michael was forced to abdicate.

How did the USSR establish control over Bulgaria by 1947?

Soviet troops remained post-liberation. Communists initially joined a coalition called the Fatherland Front, then purged rival groups. The monarchy was abolished in 1946. A new constitution in 1947 ended parliamentary democracy and disbanded opposition parties.

How did the USSR establish control over Hungary by 1948?

Soviet troops remained post-liberation. Despite winning only 17% in the 1945 election, communists controlled the Ministry of the Interior. They used the secret police to persecute rivals. Rigged elections in 1947 gave them control of a coalition. The Social Democratic and Communist parties merged in 1948.

How did the USSR establish control over Czechoslovakia by 1948?

Soviet troops left after the war. Post-war elections gave communists leadership of a coalition. They gradually took control of key ministries to arrest opponents. Non-communist Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk was murdered in 1947. All non-communist government members resigned in February 1948, allowing communists to fill the positions.

What were the main changes between the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences that affected their outcomes?

Roosevelt died and was replaced by Truman, Churchill was replaced by Attlee after a UK election, the USSR began installing sympathetic governments in Eastern Europe without free elections, and Truman informed Stalin of the successful US atomic bomb test at Potsdam.

What major disagreements arose at the Potsdam Conference?

Disagreements included: the future government of Poland (USSR supported the Lublin government), the future of Germany (Stalin wanted to dismember it, US/UK did not), Soviet access to the Ruhr (rejected), and Stalin's desire for influence in Japan (rejected by Truman).

What key agreements were reached at Potsdam?

Agreement on the Oder-Neisse Line as the Polish-German border, denazification of Germany, war crimes trials, governing Germany via the Allied Control Council requiring unanimous decisions, and allowing reparations to be taken from each occupation zone.

What was the "Bizonia" and why was it formed?

Bizonia was the merger of the American and British occupation zones in Germany in 1946. It was formed after reparations to the USSR were halted due to disputes over exchanging industrial goods for agricultural produce.

How did political reconstruction differ between the Soviet and Western occupation zones in Germany?

In the Soviet zone, the Social Democrats and Communists were merged into the Socialist Unity Party. In Western zones, a multi-party system reflecting US, British, and French political traditions was established.

What was the Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM) established to do?

The CFM was created at Potsdam to deal with post-war issues relating to defeated European countries, passing on some unresolved decisions from the conference.

what was Stalin's primary goal in Eastern Europe after WWII?

Stalin aimed to create Soviet "spheres of influence" in Eastern Europe to ensure the USSR would not be invaded again, using a combination of military presence, political manipulation, and coercion.

What was the Manhattan Project?

The US research project tasked to

develop an atomic bomb.

Capitalism

A form of economic system where most

of the economy is privately owned.

Communism

An ideology which aims to create an

equal society, where the economy is

controlled by the people and private

ownership does not exist.

What was the Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)?

A wartime meeting where the USA, USSR, and Britain planned post-war Europe—agreeing to divide Germany, create the UN, hold elections in Eastern Europe, and enter the war against Japan.

What was the Potsdam Conference (July–Aug 1945)?

A post-war conference where the Allies met to finalise Germany’s occupation, but major tensions emerged over Poland, reparations, and Soviet control of Eastern Europe after Hitler’s defeat.

When did WW2 start and end?

September 1, 1939-September 2, 1945

What two major events prompted President Truman to introduce the policy of containment in 1947?

1) Britain announced it could no longer afford to support the Greek government against communist rebels, risking Greece and Turkey falling to communism. 2) Economic crisis and poor harvests in Western Europe increased the threat of communist takeovers in France and Italy.

What were the two main components of Truman's containment policy?

1) The Truman Doctrine (March 1947): A commitment to provide economic and military aid to free countries threatened by totalitarian aggression. 2) The European Recovery Program or Marshall Aid (June 1947): A plan to provide financial aid to stabilize European economies and prevent the growth of communism.

What was the Truman Doctrine?

Announced in March 1947, it was a policy offering U.S. support to free peoples resisting subjugation. Truman asked Congress for $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey, framing a global struggle between free and oppressed peoples and committing the U.S. to intervene worldwide.

What was the European Recovery Program (Marshall Aid)?

Announced in June 1947, it was a U.S. plan to provide economic assistance ($13.3 billion over four years) to rebuild European economies post-WWII. Its aims were to stabilize economies, prevent communist growth, create markets for U.S. goods, and it was offered to (but refused by) the Soviet bloc.

How did Stalin respond to the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid?

He saw Marshall Aid as a serious threat. In September 1947, he convened communist leaders, established COMINFORM to ensure unity under Moscow, and tightened control over Eastern Europe, especially Czechoslovakia, viewing the aid as American economic warfare and an ideological attack.

What was COMINFORM?

The Communist Information Bureau, established by Stalin in September 1947. Its purpose was to coordinate communist parties across Europe under Moscow's direction and maintain ideological unity within the Soviet bloc in response to the Marshall Plan.

What was the initial broad Allied agreement on post-war Germany?

Germany would be divided into four occupation zones; Berlin would also be divided into four zones. The USSR could take reparations. Germany would be denazified, demilitarized, and democratized. A four-power Allied Control Council would decide matters for all of Germany.

What were the major points of initial Allied agreement on post-war Germany?

Germany would be divided into four occupation zones. Berlin would also be divided into four zones. The USSR could take reparations. The Polish border would move west to the Oder-Neisse Line. Germany would be denazified, demilitarized, and democratized. An Allied Control Council would make decisions for all of Germany.

What key actions by the Western powers in 1947-48 increased Stalin's suspicion over Germany?

The USA refused a Soviet loan for its occupation zone in 1945. In January 1947, Britain and the USA merged their zones into Bizonia (joined by France in 1948). In March 1947, they secretly agreed to politically unite their zones. Marshall Aid was extended to the western zones. In June 1948, they introduced a new currency for their zones.

What was the Berlin Blockade and why did Stalin initiate it in June 1948?

Stalin blockaded all road, rail, and canal routes into West Berlin and cut off its gas and electricity. He aimed to force the Western powers out of Berlin by starving the city, removing a symbol of Western life from the Soviet zone, and responding to the introduction of a new Western currency.

How did the Western powers respond to the Berlin Blockade?

They launched the Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles). For 11 months, they flew in nearly 300,000 missions, delivering over 2 million tons of supplies (coal, food, petrol). By mid-1949, a plane was landing in West Berlin every two minutes. The Soviets used obstructions like radio jamming but did not shoot down planes.

What were the outcomes and consequences of the Berlin Blockade?

Stalin lifted the blockade in May 1949, having failed. The crisis solidified the division of Europe. In April 1949, the USA helped found NATO, a peacetime military alliance. In May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was created. In October 1949, the USSR created the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).

What was NATO and why was its creation significant?

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, formed in April 1949, was a military alliance of 12 Western nations led by the USA. It was significant as the first peacetime military alliance for the USA, committing it to defend allies in Europe (Article 5), marking a permanent military standoff with the USSR.

What political developments in Germany followed the Blockade?

West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) was formed in May 1949, with Konrad Adenauer as Chancellor. East Germany (German Democratic Republic) was formed in October 1949, controlled by the communist Socialist Unity Party (SED). Berlin remained divided, with West Berlin defended by Western troops.

How did Stalin further consolidate control over Eastern Europe after the Blockade?

He tightened control through existing COMINFORM. In January 1949, he established the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to direct the economies of the Soviet bloc, countering Marshall Aid's influence.

What event in 1949 marked a final turn to the Cold War?

The Soviet Union successfully tested its own atomic bomb in August 1949, ending the U.S. nuclear monopoly and escalating the arms race, cementing the transition from wartime alliance to Cold War confrontation.

According to historians who blame Stalin, what evidence shows the USSR was responsible for starting the Cold War?

Stalin broke Yalta agreements by installing communist governments in Poland and Romania and imposing Soviet systems across Eastern Europe. He banned opposition and jailed or murdered opponents. He created COMECON to enforce Soviet economic models and COMINFORM to coordinate communist parties to undermine capitalism. His ideology was expansionist and he sought to impose communism globally.

How do revisionist historians defend Stalin's actions at the start of the Cold War?

They argue Soviet policy was driven by legitimate security concerns, not expansionist ideology. Historical fears of Western invasion were worsened by Allied actions in WWII (withholding Enigma details, delaying D-Day, keeping the A-bomb secret). Stalin needed a buffer zone in Eastern Europe for post-war recovery after devastating Soviet losses (20 million dead, cities destroyed, 25 million homeless).

What specific post-war US actions does the revisionist view cite as provocative to the USSR?

The abrupt end of Lend-Lease in 1945; Truman's hard line with Molotov; using the atomic monopoly to pressure Potsdam; the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid, seen as attempts to encircle the USSR; creating Bizonia and a new currency, breaching Potsdam and imposing capitalism on Germany.

What are the two main revisionist strands blaming the USA for the Cold War?

1) US policy was driven by economic imperialism—the need to create global free markets for American goods (e.g., Marshall Aid's true purpose). 2) US policy was driven by aggressive personalities, particularly President Truman, whose confrontational approach and belief in American supremacy provoked the USSR.

How can the role of the USA be defended at the start of the Cold War?

The USA reacted defensively. Truman took two years to develop a response. The Truman Doctrine was a defensive reaction to communist threats in Greece and Turkey. The USA upheld self-determination, allowing Western Europe free choice of political systems, unlike Stalin in the East.

What was the Warsaw Pact, why was it formed, and who controlled it?

The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance of 8 communist states formed on May 14, 1955. It was a direct response to West Germany's rearmament and entry into NATO. It was completely dominated by the USSR: the Commander-in-Chief, Deputy, Chief of Staff, and branch commanders were always Soviet officers, with its headquarters in Moscow.

What was the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and why was it significant?

Created by the 1951 Treaty of Paris, it established a common market for coal and steel among France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and West Germany. It was a US-supported initiative to foster Western European cooperation and economic integration, easing tensions over German rearmament.

Why did the Allies cooperate well after 1941

They shared a common goal—defeating Nazi Germany—which overshadowed their ideological differences and encouraged military and economic cooperation.

Why do some historians argue Yalta was successful?

They believe it created a strong plan for post-war peace and showed practical cooperation between the Allies.

Why do other historians argue Yalta caused future conflict?

Because its vague promises (especially on Poland) let the USSR expand influence, planting the seeds of Cold War tensions.

What were “spheres of influence” and why were they important?

Areas where one power dominated politically or militarily. At Yalta and Potsdam, the USSR’s growing sphere in Eastern Europe worried the West.

What concerns did the USSR have about the West during WWII?

They believed Britain and the USA delayed a Second Front, distrusted Soviet intentions, and might weaken or encircle the USSR in the future.

Who were the main Allies during the Second World War?

The key Allies were the USA, the USSR, and Great Britain—three major powers that cooperated to defeat Nazi Germany despite deep ideological differences.

What was the Lend-Lease Programme?

It strengthened the Allied war effort, helped the USSR survive the German invasion, and showed growing U.S. involvement in the war, laying groundwork for post-war influence.

What was the Second Front?

The long-awaited Allied invasion of Western Europe (Normandy, 1944) that opened a major front against Germany apart from the Eastern Front.

Why was the Second Front important?