Logical Fallacy Review

False analogy

When someone makes a claim that two things are alike, but they actually have a weak connection that insinuates an illogical conclusion.

Example of False analogy

Bananas and telephones both fit in your hand, so telephones must be edible.

Own example of False analogy

You shouldn't be afraid of dark alleyways because you're not afraid of haunted houses.

False dilemma

Presents two alternative states as the only possibilities when more possibilities may exist.

Example of False dilemma

You are either with or against me.

Own example of False dilemma

If you don't say you love me, you must hate me.

Slippery slope

If something were to happen, it would lead to another event and then another (having negative consequences).

Example of Slippery slope

If John Smith gets elected for a second term, he will show his true colors as a dictator, abolish the U.S. democratic republic, and appoint himself as emperor.

Own example of Slippery slope

If I get a C on this test, my class average will drop, then my class rank drops, and then I will not get into my dream school, and I will be a failure.

Ad hominem

Uses an accepted fact about a person to undermine their credibility despite the lack of causal connection between the two parts of the argument.

Example of Ad hominem

Bill claims that this was an accident, but we know Bill to be a liar, so we can't take his word for it.

Own example of Ad hominem

Clara supports higher taxes, but we know she is rich, so she just wants to pay less herself.

Ad populum

Arguing something is true or good because many people believe it - mob mentality.

Example of Ad populum

Everyone buys this shampoo, so it must be good.

Own example of Ad populum

Juicing is such a popular diet trend, so it must be super healthy.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

Where someone assumes that because event B happened after event A, event A must have caused event B - wrongful causation.

Example of Post hoc ergo propter hoc

My computer crashed after I installed a new piece of editing software. I'm sure the software caused the crash.

Own example of Post hoc ergo propter hoc

I broke my arm after dying my hair for the first time. Dying my hair must have caused my arm to break.

Dogmatism

Insistence that their opinion is the only valid one, refusing to consider other viewpoints/evidence.

Example of Dogmatism

The flat Earth belief - I don't care that there are centuries of scientific evidence on the contrary, the Earth is flat!

Own example of Dogmatism

The fake Moon-landing - The government is trying to fool us with fake pictures and evidence. The moon landing never happened!

Appeal to tradition

Relies on tradition to prove a point → arguing that a thesis must be correct because it has traditionally been so.

Example of Appeal to tradition

The death penalty is acceptable because it has always been the means with which heinous crime has been punished.

Own example of Appeal to tradition

Everyone in our family liked reading, so you must like reading too.

Non sequitur

An argument where the conclusion does not follow from the premise.

Example of Non sequitur

I got sick after eating sushi last week. Pizza is the best.

Own example of Non sequitur

My hair is feeling flat today. I think I may have left the oven on.

Circular reasoning

One reasoning begins with a claim they are trying to conclude with.

Example of Circular reasoning

Whatever is less dense than water will float, because such objects won't sink in water.

Own example of Circular reasoning

You should eat healthy foods because eating healthy is good for you.

Appeal to false authority

Argues that a belief must be true solely because an authority figure said so, without examining the authority's credibility.

Example of Appeal to false authority

The mayor said that the crime rate is down. The statistics claiming otherwise must be erroneous.

Own example of Appeal to false authority

Selena Gomez says that bee pollen is great for digestion. It actually causes intense inflammation.

Tu quoque

Answering criticism with criticism, or turning the argument back around on the other person.

Example of Tu quoque

The Ancient Greeks were some of the greatest thinkers. They had slaves, so we should have slaves too.

Own example of Tu quoque

Kayla yelled at me for chewing with my mouth open, but she does the same thing!

Equivocation

Uses misleading terms of more than one meaning without clarifying which definition is intended in the scenario.

Example of Equivocation

Claiming someone is unethical because they have a bad work ethic.

Example of Equivocation (Your Own)

A bat is a mammal therefore, baseball players use mammals to hit baseballs.

Genetic Fallacy

Reasons that one can accurately judge or assess something as good or bad based on where it originates from.

Example of Genetic Fallacy

My physician is overweight. I can't trust any of his health advice.

Example of Genetic Fallacy (Your Own)

My friend told me the war of 1812 took place in 1812, but she's not a historian so she must be wrong.

Hasty Generalization

A conclusion is drawn from insufficient evidence - broad claim based on limited or unrepresentative data.

Example of Hasty Generalization

Someone visits a city on a rainy day and concludes that the weather in that city has always been bad.

Example of Hasty Generalization (Your Own)

After eating a piece of cold mushroom and hating it, I now know that all mushrooms are disgusting.

Straw Man

When one misrepresents an argument so that it becomes easier to attack.

Example of Straw Man

People who oppose gun control are potential terrorists. We cannot allow terrorists to decide our laws. All guns should be banned.

Example of Straw Man (Your Own)

People who hate cows don't like meat, they could steal all the meat from the grocery stores! We should arrest people that hate cows.

Alphabet Soup

Uses excessive acronyms, jargon, or technical language to confuse or impress others, rather than to communicate clearly.

Example of Alphabet Soup

I firmly support the New Deal programs like CCC, TVA, NRA, FDIC, SSA, and WPA.

Example of Alphabet Soup (Your Own)

In a corporate setting one might say, 'We need to leverage our synergy to optimize the paradigm.'

Gambler's Fallacy

The belief that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes.

Example of Gambler's Fallacy

If someone playing roulette keeps landing on black, they are very likely to think that the next number is going to be red.

Example of Gambler's Fallacy (Your Own)

If someone tosses a coin 4 times in a row and lands on heads, they are very likely to think that the next toss will land on tails.

No True Scotsman

Appeals to the 'purity' of an ideal or standard as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws in your argument.

Example of No True Scotsman

John doesn't drink alcohol. No real man avoids alcohol. John isn't a real man.

Example of No True Scotsman (Your Own)

Alan doesn't wear baseball caps. No real baseball fan doesn't wear baseball caps. Alan is not a real baseball fan.

Appeal to Nature

The argument that just because something is natural that it is therefore valid, justified, or inevitable.

Example of Appeal to Nature

John was well within his rights to avenge his wife after he witnessed her being brutally murdered. Killing the murderer was the natural response.

Example of Appeal to Nature (Your Own)

Product packaging claiming 'natural' ingredients is a natural fallacy because they often contain some kind of hidden additives that could poison you.

Appeal to Pity

Occurs when someone tries to win an argument by manipulating emotions, like sympathy or guilt, instead of using logic or evidence.

Example of Appeal to Pity

You have to pass me; I'll lose my scholarship if I fail.

Example of Appeal to Pity (Your Own)

Why do you support prison reform? Would you really fight for rights for a person that murdered everyone you love?

Kettle Logic

The use of several inconsistent arguments to defend a position.

Example of Kettle Logic

Someone caught speeding argues that: I was not speeding. I didn't see the speed limit sign. There was no speed limit posted.

Example of Kettle Logic (Your Own)

Freud's Kettle Defense: I returned the kettle undamaged. The kettle was already damaged when I borrowed it. I never borrowed the kettle.

Scare Tactics

Occurs when someone tries to persuade you by provoking fear, rather than using logical evidence.

Example of Scare Tactics

If you don't vote for this candidate, terrorists will attack our nation.

Example of Scare Tactics (Your Own)

If you don't buy this security system, your house will get broken into and you will be harmed.

Middle Ground

Argues that a compromise between two extremes must be reached to satisfy a situation.

Example of Middle Ground

Joe says the sky is pink and Liz says the sky is blue, so they should really just compromise and say the sky is purple.

Example of Middle Ground (Your Own)

Martin says '1+1=2' and Clara says '1+1=4,' so they should just compromise and say '1+1=3.'

Guilt by Association

Wrongly concludes someone or something is bad or flawed because of its connection to a negatively viewed person, group, or idea.

Example of Guilt by Association

President Eisenhower's highway system plan facing opposition because Nazis also built highways.

Example of Guilt by Association (Your Own)

The Republican senator rejected the new proposal for free N95 masks because it was supported by Democrats.

Red Herring

Focuses on arguing for an irrelevant topic with the intention of distracting the audience.

Example of Red Herring

I know I cheated on the test, Mrs. Holburn. But what am I going to do, my parents will kill me!

Example of Red Herring (Your Own)

A politician asked about a new tax plan deflects and talks about their opponent's unrelated personal life.

Inductive Reasoning

Draws a broad conclusion from insufficient or unrepresentative specific examples, failing to provide strong evidence.

Example of Inductive Reasoning

If we can put a man on the moon, why can't we fix our tax code?

Example of Inductive Reasoning (Your Own)

If we allow kids to have one sugary snack, they'll want candy all day, then sugar addiction, then major health problems.

Deductive Reasoning with a Valid and Sound Syllogism

The argument's form is logically perfect (valid), but one or more of its premises are false in reality, making the entire argument unsound and its conclusion unreliable.

Example of Deductive Reasoning

If it's raining, the ground is wet. The ground is wet. Therefore, it's raining.

Example of Deductive Reasoning (Your Own)

All birds can fly. Penguins are birds, Therefore, penguins can fly.