EARTH AND LIFE

Endogenic processes

Processes that occur beneath the surface of the Earth.

Magma

A mixture of molten rock, minerals, and gases that is formed beneath the Earth's surface.

Asthenosphere

The layer below the lithosphere where rocks can flow like a liquid due to high pressure and heat.

Lithosphere

The outermost layer of the Earth, consisting of the continental crust and oceanic crust.

Formation of Magma

The process by which magma is formed, which can occur through temperature increase, pressure decrease, or the addition of fluids.

Gases in Magma

Dissolved gases in magma that form separate vapor phases as pressure decreases.

Volcano

A vent in the Earth's crust through which magma, gases, and other materials are ejected.

Viscosity of Magmas

The resistance to flow of magma, which depends on its composition and temperature.

Magma escape routes

The ways in which magma can leave the asthenosphere and crust, either through intrusion or extrusion.

Lava

Magma that has extruded onto the Earth's surface.

Tephra

Solidified magma in the air, also known as volcanic ash.

Pyroclastic rock

Rock formed from the accumulation of tephra on the Earth's surface.

Crust

The outermost layer of the Earth's surface.

Magma chamber

A reservoir of molten rock beneath the Earth's surface.

Decompression melting

The process of melting rock due to a decrease in pressure.

Ridge

A long, narrow elevated landform formed by tectonic activity.

Upwelling

The upward movement of hot material in the Earth's mantle.

Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of the Earth, including the crust and upper mantle.

Asthenosphere

The partially molten layer of the Earth's mantle beneath the lithosphere.

Flux melting

Melting of rocks due to the addition of water or carbon dioxide.

Felsic magma

Magma with high silica content, high gas content, and high viscosity.

Intermediate magma

Magma with higher silica content than mafic magma, resulting in higher gas content and viscosity.

Mafic magma

Magma with low silica content, high iron and magnesium content, low gas content, and low viscosity.

Ultramafic magma

Magma with very low silica content, high iron and magnesium content, and high temperature.

Stress

The force that can cause deformation in rocks.

Lithostatic stress

Equal pressure exerted on rocks from all directions due to the weight of overlying rocks.

Differential stress

Unequal stress experienced by rocks due to tectonic forces.

Tension stress

Stress that stretches or pulls rocks apart.

Compressional stress

Stress that presses, squeezes, or pushes rocks together.

Shear stress

Stress that results in slippage and translation of rocks.

Strain

The change in shape or deformation of rocks in response to stress.

Elastic deformation

Reversible deformation of rocks in response to small differential stresses.

Brittle deformation

Irreversible deformation of rocks resulting in fracture.

Faults

Large cracks or breaks in rocks caused by tectonic forces.

Dip-Slip (Normal Fault)

A type of fault where brittle rocks are stretched and tectonic tensional forces are involved, causing the movement of blocks of rock mainly in the vertical direction.

Hanging Wall

The block lying on the top of a dip-slip fault surface.

Footwall

The block lying below the dip-slip fault surface.

Strike-Slip Fault

A type of fault where brittle rocks are sheared and the movement of blocks of rock is chiefly in the horizontal direction.

Ductile Deformation

The behavior of rocks buried deep within the Earth's crust when subjected to differential stress, causing them to become thicker under compressional stress and thinner under tensional stress.

Folds

Structures formed when rocks deform in a ductile manner, bending or folding instead of fracturing to form faults or joints.

Monoclines

The simplest type of folds where horizontal layers are bent upwards, resulting in two horizontal limbs of the fold.

Synclines

Fold structures where the original rock layers have been folded downward and the two limbs of the fold dip inward toward the hinge of the fold.

Anticlines

Fold structures formed when the originally rock layers have been folded upward and the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the fold.

Endogenic Processes

Internal processes that occur beneath the surface of the Earth.

Magma

A mixture of molten rock, minerals, and gases.

Felsic Magma

Magma with a high silica content.

Intermediate Magma

Magma with a moderate silica content.

Mafic Magma

Magma with a low silica content.

Ultramafic Magma

Magma with a very low silica content.

Viscosity

The resistance to flow of a substance, in this case, magma.

Universe

All existing matter and space considered as a whole.

Big Bang Model of Universe

Proposed by Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre, it describes the universe as originating from an infinitely tiny, dense point or singularity.

Inflationary Epoch

The period of rapid expansion of the universe, occurring between 10^-35 seconds and 10^-33 seconds after the Big Bang.

Formation of Universe

The process in which gravity and strong nuclear force led to the formation of fundamental particles and energy, such as quarks, electrons, protons, and neutrinos.

Formation of Basic Elements

The process of nucleosynthesis, where protons and neutrons combine to form hydrogen nuclei, which then combine to form helium nuclei.

Radiation Era

A period of 10,000 years after the Big Bang when most of the energy in the universe was in the form of radiation, including light, x-rays, radio waves, and UV rays.

Matter Domination

The period of 300,000 years after the Big Bang when matter began to dominate, leading to the formation of neutral atoms and the birth of stars and galaxies.

Solar System Model

A representation used to describe and explain the phenomena of the solar system, including the understanding of its origin and structure.

Geocentric Model

A model of the solar system proposed by Claudius Ptolemy, where the Earth is believed to be the center.

Heliocentric Model

A model of the solar system proposed by Nicholas Copernicus, where the Sun is believed to be the center.

Angular Momentum

The quantity of rotation of a body, determined by its moment of inertia and angular velocity.

Nebular Hypothesis

A theory proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon Laplace, suggesting that the solar system originated from a cloud of interstellar gas called a nebula.

Terrestrial Planets

The rocky planets in the solar system, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

Jovian Planets

The gaseous planets in the solar system, including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Protoplanet

A whirlpool of gas within a rotating mass of a nebula, believed to be the precursor to the formation of planets.

Gravity

The force that describes how planets move as they orbit the Sun.

Composition Layer

The layers of the Earth based on their composition, including the crust, mantle, and core.

Mechanical Layer

The layers of the Earth based on their mechanical properties, including the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, and inner/outer core.

Lithosphere

The outermost layer of the Earth's composition layer, consisting of large rocks and divided into oceanic and continental crust.

Mantle

The solid rocks and minerals layer of the Earth's composition layer, making up 85% of the planet's mass.

Core

The metal alloy layer of the Earth's composition layer, consisting of the inner and outer core and responsible for the planet's magnetic fields.

Seismic Waves

Waves caused by the breaking down of rocks or explosions, used to study the Earth's interior structure.

Earth's Subsystems

The four subsystems of the Earth, including the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

Pangea

The supercontinent proposed by Alfred Wegener, suggesting that all continents were once connected.

Hydrospere

The water near the Earth's surface, including liquid, vapor, and ice.

Atmosphere

The layer of air or gas surrounding the Earth.

Biosphere

The zone of life on Earth, where living organisms exist.

Ocean Zones

The different layers or zones in the Earth's oceans, including coastal, pelagic, neritic, and oceanic zones.

Vertical Zone

The zone that begins at sea level and ends at the deepest point in the ocean, consisting of 5 different zones with varying sunlight.

Atmosphere

The thin layer of gas surrounding the Earth.

Green House Gases

Gases that help maintain the Earth's temperature at a level conducive to life.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere that is visible to us.

Stratosphere

The layer of the atmosphere that contains the ozone layer.

Mesosphere

The coldest region of the atmosphere, including the upper mesosphere where meteors are found.

Thermosphere

The hottest region of the atmosphere.

Epipelagic

Also known as the "Sunlight zone," this zone extends from 0-200m in the ocean and receives a lot of sunlight. It is inhabited by sharks.

Mesopelagic

Also known as the "Twilight zone," this zone extends from 200-1000m in the ocean and has limited sunlight. It is inhabited by octopuses.

Bathypelagic

Also known as the "Midnight zone," this zone extends from 1000-4000m in the ocean and has no sunlight. It is inhabited by animals that lack eyes, such as the stripe eel.

Abyssopelagic

Also known as the "abyss" or "Deep sea," this zone extends from 4000-6000m in the ocean and is characterized by blind shrimps and other invertebrates.

Hadalpelagic

Also known as the "Trenches," this zone extends from 6000m to the bottom of the ocean and is the deepest part. It is characterized by trenches, canyons, and sea cucumbers.

Exosphere

The upper limit of the atmosphere.

Biosphere

The "zone of life" on Earth, encompassing all living things.

Biomes

The world's major communities, divided into different types such as aquatic, forests, desert, and tundra.

Transpiration

The process of releasing water in plants.

Tropical Rainforests

A type of forest biome with four different layers:emergent, canopy, middle (understory), and bottom (forest floor).

Temperature Deciduous Forest

A type of forest biome that experiences changing seasons.

Taiga Forest

Also known as the "boreal forest," it is the largest and thickest biome, characterized by cone-bearing evergreen trees.

Desert

A biome with low rainfall and high temperatures.

Universe

All existing matter and space considered as a whole.

Big Bang Model of Universe

Proposed by Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre, it describes the universe as originating from an infinitely tiny, dense point or singularity.