Ch10: Social Thinking

Interpersonal Attraction

Individuals liking one another due to physical attractiveness, similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity

Attraction: Physical Attractiveness

Increase with symmetry and golden ratio proportions

Attraction: Similarity

Convenience (easier spending time together)

Validate values and choices

Attraction: Self-Disclosure

Share fears, thoughts, and goals without judgement

Deepen attraction and friendship

Attraction: Reciprocity

People like each other better when they believe other person likes them

Attraction: Proximity

Convenience

Mere exposure effect (familiarity effect): Prefer more frequently exposed stimuli

Aggression

Behaviour with intent to cause harm or increase social dominance

Protect against threats and preserve resources

Aggression: Amygdala

Associate stimuli with rewards/punishments

Detect threats

Activate to increase aggression

Aggression: Prefrontal Cortex

Reduce emotional reactivity from amygdala activation

Aggression: Testosterone

Increase aggression

Aggression: Cognitive Neoassociation Model

Increase negative emotions = Increase aggression

Aggression: Exposure to Violent Behaviour

Increase exposure to/viewing violent behaviour = Increase aggression

Attachment

Emotional bond between caregiver (secure base) and child

Develop during infancy

4 types

Secure Attachment

Consistent caregiver for child to return to (secure base)

Preference for caregiver for comfort

Upset when caregiver leaves, comfort when caregiver returns

Vital for social development

Avoidant Attachment

Caregiver with little/no response to distressed child

No preference for caregiver

Little/no reaction when caregiver leaves/returns

(Anxious-) Ambivalent Attachment

Caregiver with inconsistent response to distressed child (no secure base)

Upset when caregiver leaves, mixed response when caregiver returns

Disorganized Attachent

Caregiver with erratic behaviour and social withdrawal

No clear behaviour pattern to caregiver absence/presence

Avoidance/resistance, dazed/confused, repetitive behaviour

Social Support

Being cared for by social network

Reduce psychological distress and mortality from diseases

Boost immune system

6 types

Emotional Support

Listening, affirming, empathizing with someone’s feelings

Esteem Support

Affirm person’s qualities and skills

Boost confidence

Material/Tangible Support

Financial/material contribution to person

Informational Support

Provide info to help someone

Network Support

Give sense of belonging

Shown physically or through gestures

Social Behaviour: Foraging

Seek and eat food

Biological, psychological, and social influences

Foraging: Biological

Hypothalamus control hunger

Genes impact behaviour onset and patterns

Foraging: Psychological

Cognitive skills affect behaviour

Spatial awareness, memory, decision making

Foraging: Social

Group foraging: Young learn from observation

Social Behaviour: Mating System

Sexual behaviour organization

Biological and social factors

Mating System: Monogamy

Exclusive relationship

Mating System: Polygamy

Polygyny: Male have exclusive relationships with multiple females

Polyandry: Female have exclusive relationships with multiple males

Mating System: Promiscuity

Mating without exclusivity

Social Behaviour: Mate Choice (Intersexual Selection)

Select mate based on attraction

Mate Choice: Mate Bias

Selectivity when choosing mate

Increase species fitness from direct or indirect benefits

Mate Choice Mechanism: Phenotypic Benefits

Observable traits increase mate attractiveness

Increase offspring production and survival

Mate Choice Mechanism: Sensory Bias

Trait match pre-existing preference in population

Mate Choice Mechanism: Fisherian/Runaway Selection

Positive feedback

Sexually desirable trait with no/neg survival effect become exaggerated over time

Ex: Peacock feathers

Mate Choice Mechanism: Indicator Traits

Trait signifying good health increase attractiveness

Mate Choice Mechanism: Genetic Compatibility

Attraction to different genetic makeups reduce probability of homozygotic offspring with diseased allele

Social Behaviour: Altruism

Helping behaviour benefiting another at cost to person

Benefits outweigh costs or empathy-altruism hypothesis

Empathy

Experience another’s emotions

Influence helping behaviour

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Person helps another when they feel empathy

Social Behaviour: Game Theory

Explain decision-making behaviour

Game payoff = Fitness

Game Theory: Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)

Natural selection prevent alternative strategies

Strategy = inherited traits = become more fit

Game Theory: Hawk-Dove Game

Focus of access to shared food resources

Hawk: Fighter strategy

Dove: Fight avoidance strategy

Hawk vs Hawk: 1 winner, 1 loser

Hawk vs Dove: Hawk wins

Dove vs Dove: Share food

Hawk-Dove Game: Reward Larger than Fight Cost

Hawks have advantage

Hawk-Dove Game: Fight Cost Larger than Reward

Doves have advantage

Hawk-Dove Game: Reward and Fight Cost Equal

Strategies coexist

Game Theory Alternative: Altruism

Donor provide benefit to recipient at own cost

Game Theory Alternative: Cooperation

Donor and recipient benefit by cooperating

Game Theory Alternative: Spite

Donor and recipient negatively impacted

Game Theory Alternative: Selfishness

Donor benefit and recipient negatively impacted

Social Behaviours: Inclusive Fitness

Measure organism success in population

Based on offspring number, supporting offspring, and offspring ability to support others

Altruistic behaviour improve species fitness

Social Perception/Cognition

Form impressions of others’ characteristics through observation, past experiences, and personal beliefs/attitudes

Social Perception Components: Perceiver

Influenced by experience (attitude), motives (info classification), emotional state (interpretation)

Social Perception Components: Target

Person which perception is made

Knowledge from past experiences and specific info

Social Perception Components: Situation

Context determining available info to perceiver

Social Perception: Impression Bias

Perceiver familiarity with target allows categorization by environmental and target cues

More time with target = Confirm category

Impression Bias: Primacy Effect

First impressions > Subsequent impressions

Impression Bias: Recency Effect

Recent info > First impressions

Impression Bias: Reliance on Central Traits

Organize perception based on target traits and personal characteristics most relevant to perceiver

Impression Bias: Implicit Personality Theory

Assumptions of people based on traits and behaviour

Impression Bias: Stereotyping

Assumptions of people based on their category

Social Perception: Halo Effect

Cognitive bias

Judging specific aspect (general impression, attractiveness) affect overall impression of individual

Social Perception: Just World Hypothesis

Cognitive bias

Good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people (get what you deserve)

Social Perception: Self-Serving (Attributional) Bias

View own success based on internal factors and failures based on external factors

Protect self-esteem

Self-Serving Bias: Self-Enhancement

Maintain self-worth through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures

Self-Serving Bias: Emotion

Impact self-esteem

Self-identity protection

Self-Serving Bias: Relationships

Close relationships = Joint attributions

Strangers = Blame one another

Attribution Theory

Tendency to infer causes of others’ behaviour

Dispositional (Internal) Attributions

Relate to person whose behaviour is considered

Beliefs, attitudes, personality

Situational (External) Attributions

Relate to surrounding features

Threats, money, social norms, peer pressure

Attribution Theory: Consistency Cues

Consistent behaviour = Associate behaviour with motives

Attribution Theory: Consensus Cues

Behaviour differ from social expectations = Form dispositional attribution

Attribution Theory: Distinctiveness Cues

Similarity of behaviours

Behaviour differ across scenarios = Form situational attribution

Attribution Theory: Correspondent Inference Theory

Correlate intentional unexpected actions with dispositional attribution

Attribution Theory: Fundamental Attribution Error

Biased to making dispositional attributions of others in neg contexts

Attribution Theory: Actor-Observer Asymmetry/Bias

Self-serving bias (actor) and fundamental attribution error (observer)

Biased to making situational attributions of self in neg contexts

Attribution Theory: Attribute Substitution

Substitute complex judgement with simpler solution or apply heuristics without realizing

Common in math, size/colour optical illusions

Attribution Theory: Cultural Attribution

Culture impacts attribution types

Cultural Attribution: Individualist

Value individual, personal goals, independence

Make more fundamental attribution errors (attribute behaviour to dispositional factors)

Cultural Attribution: Collectivist

Value conformity and interdependence

More attribution of behaviour to situational factors

Stereotypes

Cognitive

Attitudes and impressions about group based on limited/superficial info

Stereotype Content Model

Classify stereotypes based on relationship to “in-group”

Warmth and competence (4 combinations)

Stereotype Content Model: Warmth

Not in direct competition with in-group for resources

Stereotype Content Model: Competence

Have high status in society

Stereotype Classification: Paternalistic

Group considered inferior and looked down upon

Warmth: High

Competence: Low

Stereotype Classification: Contemptuous

Group viewed with resentment and annoyance

Warmth: Low

Competence: Low

Stereotype Classification: Envious

Group viewed with jealousy and distrust

Warmth: Low

Competence: High

Stereotype Classification: Admiration

Group viewed with pride and positive feelings

Warmth: High

Competence: Low

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Stereotypes create expectations leading to conditions causing confirmation of stereotype

Stereotype Threat

Concern/anxiety of confirming group’s neg stereotype

Hinder performance

Prejudice

Affective

Neg attitude and emotional response to group prior to actual experience

Form due to differences between groups

Prejudice: Propaganda

Create prejudice in others

Factor Influencing Prejudice: Power

Ability to achieve goals despite obstacles

Ability to control resources

Factor Influencing Prejudice: Prestige

Level of respect shown by others due to jobs/roles

Factor Influencing Prejudice: Class

SES

Social inequity group people into haves and have-nots

Have-Nots: Neg attitude/jealousy

Haves: Neg attitude to justify having more

Ethnocentrism

Make judgements of other cultures based on values of own culture

Ethnocentrism: In-Group

Social group one identifies with

Ethnocentrism: Out-Group

Social group one does not identify with

Negative feelings from favouritism for in-group and lack of favouritism for out-group

Cultural Relativism

Perceive other culture as diff (not superior) from own