Biology Finals Sem 1 Study Guide

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TALKS

graphing abbreviation thing

line graphs

\-good for showing change over time (time on X)

\-can show multiple lines/data

\-must distinguish between the lines (color/pattern)

scatter plot

\-see patterns and trends

\-looking for average/best fit line

bar graphs

\-good for comparing similar items

\-must distinguish between bars (colors/patterns)

pie chart

good for looking at/comparing  parts of a whole (usually percentages)

sci method

\-observing and questioning

\-research

\-forming a hypothesis

\-experimentation

\-data collection & analysis

\-drawing conclusions

independent variable

what you, the experimenter, changes in order to do your experiment. 

dependent variable

* what you measure 
* the dependent variable *depends* on the outcome of the independent variable.

**What is the independent variable?** Example: Students were measuring the growth rate of trees under full sunlight for 8 hours a day versus trees that only have 4 hours of full sunlight per day.

the amount of time per day of full sunlight (the variable that you control)

**What is the dependent variable?**Example: Students were measuring the growth rate of trees under full sunlight for 8 hours a day versus trees that only have 4 hours of full sunlight per day.

the growth rate of the trees

homeostasis

\-the **self-regulation of body processes** within an organism in order **to maintain internal stability** 

\-Often regulated through chemical pathways or can be nerve pathways in a “feedback loop”

* the changes are being **balanced** within limits that the organism can **tolerate.**


* We can sometimes train our bodies to handle more than the average person

homeostasis

Regulatory system (Endocrine System)

* Maintains salt, water, & nutrient in blood.
* Regulates growth, development, & reproduction
* Controls the body’s response to stress.

* Sends signals to other systems using chemical signals called ***hormones***


* Glands →Hormones→Target Cells
* Target cells have receptors for specific hormones. 
* Hormones are delivered through blood or directly to cell

regulatory system (endocringe system)

* Specialized glands throughout the body
* Each secretes hormones for different responses

**Gland Regulates:**

* *Thyroid*
* *Metabolism*
* *Parathyroids*
* *Calcium*
* *Thymus*
* *White Blood Cell Maturation*
* *Adrenal*
* *Short and Long-term response to stress*
* *Pancreas*
* *Blood Sugar*
* *Ovaries*
* *Egg Production; female secondary sex characteristics*
* *Testes*
* *Sperm Production; male secondary sex characteristics* \n *Pituitary:  Controls other glands*

Negative feedback

 End product inhibits the production of that product (like a thermostat)

what are organs made of?

tissues

4 types of tissue

* connective tissue
* epithelial tissue
* muscle tissue
* nervous tissue

**Epithelial Tissue**

* lines and protects body surfaces or cavities
* Example: Skin & lining of respiratory system.

**Nervous Tissue**

* made up of neurons and other supporting cells that carry info. To all parts of the body
* Example: Brain & Central Nervous System

**Connective Tissue**

* supports, connects, protects, and  insulates
* Loosely (blood) or densely (bone) packed

**Muscle Tissue**

* group of cells that can contract and relax to help you move.
* Examples of types of muscle cell: 

\-cardiac

\-skeletal

\-smooth

how many bones at birth/adulthood?

* 350 bones at birth…206 in adulthood

5 major functions of skeletal system

* Shape & support
* Protection
* Movement
* Formation of blood cells
* Calcium & phosphorus (mineral) storage

axial skeleton (central axis)

*  includes the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum.

appendicular skeleton (appendages)

*  includes the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.

Immovable Joints

\-pelvis & skull

tendons

connect muscle to bone

ligaments

connect bone to bone

cartilage

found in joints; decreases friction and impact during motion

Cells that relax and contract

Movement, posture, stabilization, heat

Involuntary Muscles: not consciously controlled

* Smooth: line your organs, vessels
* Cardiac: heart

voluntary

* conscious control
* Skeletal 

skeletal muscle

* Bundles of muscle fibers (cells)
* Contract by sliding protein fibers past each other
* Active contraction = Energy
* Passively relax = no energy
* Muscles work to move joints
* Muscle on one side contracts while muscle on opposite side relaxes

Flexion

* decreases the joint angle

Extension

increases the joint angle

Abduction

movement away from the body

Adduction

movement toward the body

Actin

thin filament

Myosin

thick filament

Cross-bridges

knoblike projections on myosin that pull on actin when muscle contracts

what are muscle contractions controlled by?

nervous system

Step 1 (muscle contraction)

Message from Nerve cells cause the muscle to release stored Calcium

Step 2 (muscle contraction)

The Calcium opens the active site

Step 3 (muscle contraction)

The muscle fibers can link and and pull each other together= Condensed muscle

Step 4 (muscle contraction)

Calcium is reabsorbed and 

the muscle relaxes

functions of skin

* **Protection: first line of defense for immune system**
* **Sensation: pressure, pain, temperature**

__**Vitamin D formation**__: needs UV rays. Melanin in the dermis is a pigment that absorbs UV.

functions of skin pt. 2

* **Excretion of wastes: water, salt, urea in sweat**
* **Temperature regulation:** __**sweat**__ **pulls heat off of body as it evaporates, goosebumps**
* **Waterproofing: Keratin (hard protein) in skin, hair & nails makes skin tough. Sebum (oil) lubricates skin.** 

What delivers oxygen to working tissues for cellular respiration? (internal respiration)

aerobic respiration

excretion

Expel CO2; toxic to body

Gas Exchange

Air enters nose/mouth – pharynx – larynx – trachea – bronchi – bronchioles – alveoli

Each of what is surrounded by a bundle of capillaries?

alveoli

what are the smallest blood vessels?

capillaries

Where does deoxygenated blood move from?

from heart to lungs

\-CO2 diffuses into alveoli from high concentration in blood to low concentration in lungs

Where does oxygenated blood move from?

lungs to heart

\-O2 diffuses from lungs to blood and binds to hemoglobin on red blood cells

How do we control our breathing?

Breathing Center in the brain is Medulla Oblongata. It receives sensory information from receptors in lungs and in the carotid arteries & aorta.

* **Circulates blood & substances dissolved inside vessels**
* **Heart**
* **Blood Vessels**
* **Blood**

**cardiovascular system**

* **Circulates Lymph / body fluid & functions in immune response**
* **Lymph**
* **Lymph Vessels**
* **Lymph Nodes**

**Lymphatic System**

3 Types of Circulation (Cardiovascular System)

* **Pulmonary Circulation** 


* **Coronary Circulation**
* **Systemic Circulation**

Pulmonary Circulation 

* Heart to lungs & back to heart
* Blood drops off CO2 & picks up O2

Coronary Circulation

Blood to the heart itself

Systemic Circulation

Heart to body & back to heart

Systolic

Pressure when ventricles contract

Diastolic: pressure when ventricles relax & fill with blood

pressure when ventricles relax & fill with blood

High blood pressure

(hypertension)

Atherosclerosis

fatty deposits on artery walls

Plasma

liquid portion; water, nutrients, minerals

Red blood cells

carry O2 & CO2

* 5 million per cubic millimeter
* Hemoglobin = protein that carries oxygen

White Blood Cells

 immune response

* 5000-10000 per cubic millimeter

platelets

\-cell fragments that help blood clot

\-400,000 per cubic  millimeter

Communicable (Infectious) Diseases

* Passed from one organism to another
* Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists (i.e. malaria)

pathogens

disease causing microorganisms

* A non living particle made of genetic information with a protein coat.
* Not considered cells
* Non living!!!!
* Does not eat, grow or respond
* Does reproduce but only inside a living cell (host)

Virus

What type of material is a virus made out of and what are they made out of?

Hereditary material

made of:

* DNA or RNA


* Protein Coat
* Viral Envelope

REPRODUCTION OF VIRUS ORDER

1. **Attach**- Virus attached to host cell


2. **Invade**-Viruses inject their DNA into a host cell


3. **Replication-** One virus can create thousands more inside host cell


4. **Release of Viruses** -Cell death (lysing) occurs from this process

Viral Reproductive Cycle - **Active Cycle**

* The virus kills cells as soon as it enters the body
* Ultimately kills host due to lysing of host cell

Viral Reproductive Cycle – **Latent Cycle**

* Replicates DNA or RNA information without destroying host
* The virus becomes part of the bacterial cell’s chromosome
* Virus now remains silent within the host genome
* The bacterial cell divides and genetic information is passed on 

First line of defense

(external barriers) skin

Second line of defense

internal response (non specific/fever)

Third line of defense

(specific immunity)

**1.** Humoral response:

Antibodies target “free 

Pathogens”

**2.** Cell-mediated response:

Targets Pathogens inside body cells

* Some Killer T-cells, B-cells, and Helper T-cells are produced, but never go to battle.  
* They stay in the body for a long time and circulate as memory cells.  
* This is how your immune system remembers and recognizes pathogens that you have already been infected with.

long term immune memory

* **Stage 1- Ingestion = the act of eating**
* **Stage 2 - Digestion= breaking food down into small molecules** 
* **chemical digestion →enzymes** 
* **mechanical digestion   physical breakdown**
* **Carbohydrates →simple sugars**
* **Fats → glycerol & fatty acids**
* **Proteins→ amino acids**
* **Nucleic Acids → nucleotides**

stages of food processing

* **Stage 3 – Absorption = nutrients pass from intestines into blood, filtered in liver, then into cells**

**Stage 4 – Elimination =** undigested material passes out

stages of food processing

* **Digestive System = digestive tract & accessory organs (help with digestion, but food doesn’t pass through them)** 
* **salivary glands, pancreas, liver, & gallbladder** 
* **Peristalsis = waves of contraction by smooth muscles, pushes food along**
* **Sphincters = Muscles that regulate passage of material**  

digestive system vocab

* Mouth – mechanical & chemical
* Salivary amylase = begins carb digestion
* **Pharynx (throat)  = junction that opens to both esophagus & windpipe (trachea).** 

mouth, pharynx and esophagus

* Epiglottis – flap that prevents food from entering lungs
* Esophagus = muscular tube; transports food from mouth to stomach

* stores food & digests
* secretes **gastric juice** 
* **HCl – (acidic) breaks down large molecules; kills most bacteria**  
* **Pepsin – enzyme that digests proteins.**
* Mucus protects stomach from acids

\n

stomach

* Pancreas 
* Secretes enzymes to digest fats, proteins, carbs & nucleic acids
* Liver secretes **bile (**stored in gallbladder)
* Not an enzyme
* Breaks apart fat globs

accesory organs

* 6 m
* most digestion & absorption into blood
* First 25 cm = **duodenum**
* food from stomach mixes w/ digestive juices from pancreas, gallbladder, & small intestine

small intestine

* huge surface area — 300 m2 (tennis court) =  rate of absorption
* fingerlike projections = **villi** (shag carpet) to increase absorption
* Capillaries inside carry nutrients to liver 

absorption of nutrients

* AKA – colon
* Reabsorbs water
* Feces becomes more solid 
* Bacteria (E. coli) – live on undigested matter in large intestine; produce gases & vitamin K (blood clotting!
* Cellulose & bacteria in feces
* Feces is stored in rectum with two sphincters (1 involuntary & 1 voluntary) 
* Last stop → anus

The large intestine

What is excretory system?

* Body’s way of excreting/expelling wastes & toxic chemicals.
* Water
* Salt
* CO2
* Urea (by-product of protein metabolism)
* Organs of excretion
* Skin = water, salt, urea
* Lungs = CO2
* Kidneys = filter blood to create urine

Kidneys

* Two, bean-shaped organ
* Low back on either side of spine
* Filters wastes out of the blood and balance levels of molecules.

kidney structure

* Blood enters kidneys through renal artery (“dirty”)
* Blood leaves via renal vein (“clean”)

Nephron = functioning unit of the kidney

* Site of blood filtration
* 1 million per kidney


* Renal Pelvis – collects urine from nephrons

kidney failure

* Kidneys are vital to maintaining homeostasis so damage may eventually become life threatening.
* Common causes of kidney failure are:
* Infection, diabetes, high blood pressure, damage by the body’s own immune system, hazardous chemicals

diabetes

* High blood glucose levels: 
* Lack of insulin
* Lack of response to insulin
* Caused by:
* Genetics
* Poor diet: high fat, low fiber, lack of exercise
* Kidneys must filter too much sugar; over time they become damaged & may fail
* Dialysis
* Kidney transplant

filtration

* Blood enters through arteriole
* Arteriole connects to ball of capillaries called **glomerulus**
* Glomerulus is surrounded by **Bowman’s Capsule**
* Cup that accepts filtrate from blood
* Pressure of blood pushes water, salt, urea, glucose, amino acids out of blood = filtrate (180 liters per day)
* Blood cells, proteins and other large molecules remain in the blood.

reabsorption

* Filtrate passes down system of tubes
* Essential items are reabsorbed into blood
* i.e. water, glucose, salts 
* 99% of water is reabsorbed
* The arrangement of the renal tubules and capillaries allows the body to take back the useful molecules that were removed during filtration.

secretion

* At the far end of the nephron & renal tubules additional substances (wastes & toxic materials) can pass from the blood into the filtrate.
* The fluid then goes to the collecting ducts where water is removed.

urine

* Filtrate left after reabsorption is urine
* Passes into renal pelvis of kidney
* Ureter transports to urinary bladder
* Muscular storage pouch 
* Can hold up to 0.6L of urine
* Exits body through urethra