PSYCH 150

What is MAMA Cycling?

A recurring pattern in which a person's identity status moves Moratorium → Achievement → Moratorium → Achievement, reflecting alternating periods of exploration and commitment as life circumstances change.

What is the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST) and how does it relate to identity development?

The Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST) emphasizes how a person's subjective experience of their environment (phenomenology) interacts with broader ecological systems (family, peers, culture). It explains identity development—especially for marginalized youth—by showing how stressors and supports shape coping, meaning-making, and eventual identity outcomes.

What are various facets of identity development?

Key facets include personal/self-concept, social roles, ethnic-racial identity, gender identity, sexual orientation, vocational/career identity, ideological/political beliefs, religious/spiritual identity, and moral values.

What kinds of cognitive changes occur during early adulthood?

• Post-formal thought: recognition that problems can have multiple solutions & "right" answers depend on context

• Better pragmatic reasoning: weighing practical constraints alongside logic

• Integrated emotion-cognition: using feelings to inform decisions without overwhelming logic

• Specialized expertise: deep knowledge in chosen work/academic domains

• Improved executive functions: faster processing speed, working-memory capacity, and cognitive flexibility (peaks in 20s)

How have views on the "completion" of brain development changed over time?

• Early view (mid-20th c.): Developmental psychologists thought brain & cognitive maturation were essentially finished by late adolescence (≈ age 18).

• Current view (21st c. neuroscience): Structural MRI shows the prefrontal cortex, limbic connections, and myelination continue refining into the mid-20s (≈ age 25), so higher-order judgment, impulse control, and risk assessment are still maturing.

According to Perry, what kind of thinking do college students typically start with, and how does it change by the end of college?

Students often begin with dualistic thinking — viewing knowledge in black-and-white terms (right/wrong, good/bad), relying on authority figures for answers.

Students typically develop relativistic thinking — recognizing that knowledge is complex, contextual, and based on evidence and reasoning, not just authority.

Dialectical thinking

Involves detecting and resolving contradictions by integrating opposing perspectives into a more comprehensive understanding (thesis + antithesis → synthesis).

Reflective thought

Focuses on evaluating evidence, reasoning processes, and sources of knowledge to reach justified conclusions, often involving personal judgment and metacognition.

What kind of changes does the brain undergo in early adulthood?

• Continued myelination in the prefrontal cortex → faster processing & improved decision-making

• Strengthening of limbic-prefrontal connections → better emotion regulation

• Synaptic pruning continues → more efficient neural networks

• Peak cognitive performance in processing speed, working memory, and reasoning

What are the hallmarks of post-formal thought?

• Recognition of complexity and multiple perspectives

• Tolerance for ambiguity

• Integration of emotion and logic

• Contextual problem-solving

• Ability to shift between abstract and practical reasoning

How does social development continue in adulthood?

• Deepening of intimate relationships (romantic, friendships)

• Greater focus on generativity (mentoring, parenting, contributing to society)

Role transitions (partner, parent, professional) shape identity

• Emphasis on emotional regulation and meaningful connections over broad social expansion (especially in later adulthood)

Childhood "fantasy" stage

dream jobs based on glamour, not reality

Adolescence "tentative" stage

interests & abilities considered; exploratory courses/jobs

Emerging-adult "exploratory" stage

try majors, internships, gigs to test fit

Early-adult "establishment" stage

commit to a field, build credentials & professional identity

Mid-adult "maintenance" stage

refine expertise, seek advancement or adjustment for values/ family balance

Late-adult "disengagement" stage

shift to mentoring, phased retirement, legacy projects

What societal and cultural factors shape vocational development?

• Economic conditions & labor-market demand• Access to education/training

• Family expectations & socioeconomic status

• Gender-role and cultural norms about "appropriate" careers

• Discrimination or systemic barriers (race, ethnicity, disability)

• Public policy (e.g., paid leave, apprenticeships) and regional opportunities

What is Erikson's task of intimacy vs. isolation in early adulthood?

Young adults must form mutually committed, emotionally close relationships (romantic or deep friendships); success yields intimacy & connectedness, failure leads to isolation, loneliness, and a fragile sense of self.

What are the components of consummate love?

intimacy (emotional closeness and connection), passion (physical attraction and sexual desire), and commitment (the decision to maintain the relationship over time). All three in balance constitutes this

How does a secure attachment pattern present in adulthood?

Individuals feel at ease with closeness, rely on partners when needed, and expect support to be reciprocal.

How does an anxious attachment pattern present in adulthood?

Individuals seek constant reassurance, worry about being deserted, and may interpret ambiguous cues as rejection.

How does an avoidant attachment pattern present in adulthood?

Individuals value self-sufficiency, downplay emotional disclosure, and often keep partners at arm's length.

What challenge do adults face in the stage of generativity versus stagnation, and how do they successfully navigate it?

Adults must find ways to contribute meaningfully to the next generation through work, family, or community involvement. Success means feeling productive and purposeful; failure leads to feelings of self-absorption and unfulfillment.

In what ways can prolonged stress affect the body over time?

Chronic stress can weaken immune defenses, increase inflammation, and raise the risk of cardiovascular problems.

How does stress influence the aging process?

Ongoing stress accelerates biological aging by damaging cells and impairing the body's ability to repair itself efficiently.

What shifts occur in thinking abilities during middle adulthood?

There is a gradual decline in processing speed and the ability to solve new problems quickly, while skills relying on accumulated knowledge and experience tend to improve or remain stable.

How do abilities that involve solving new problems without prior knowledge change with age?

These tend to decrease gradually, reflecting a slowdown in processing efficiency and working memory.

How do skills based on accumulated knowledge and experience evolve over time?

They generally improve or stay consistent, as people build a larger base of facts, vocabulary, and practical understanding.

What happens to learning and memory during middle adulthood?

While recalling unfamiliar information may become slower, recognition and the ability to remember meaningful or well-organized material remain relatively strong, especially when using effective strategies.

Which behaviors increase the likelihood of developing dementia?

Habits such as physical inactivity, poor diet, smoking, excessive alcohol use, unmanaged chronic conditions, and lack of mental stimulation raise the risk of cognitive decline.

What challenge do older adults face in the stage of integrity versus despair, and how is it successfully resolved?

They reflect on their life with either a sense of fulfillment and acceptance or regret and bitterness. Achieving a feeling of coherence and meaning leads to peace, while unresolved conflict can cause despair.

What is recognized as a "ninth stage" of human development beyond traditional models?

Some theories propose a phase focused on transcendence or spiritual growth, where individuals seek to find meaning beyond the self and connect with broader existence.

What factors help people maintain sharp thinking and memory as they age?

Staying physically active, engaging in lifelong learning, maintaining strong social ties, managing stress, and following a healthy lifestyle contribute to preserving cognitive function.

How do aging-related changes in sensory processing affect mental functioning?

Declines in hearing, vision, and touch reduce the quality of incoming information, which can make thinking tasks harder and slow down mental responses.

What structural and functional brain changes occur in late adulthood?

There is shrinkage in some brain areas, reduced neural connectivity, and slower communication between regions, though certain areas involved in accumulated knowledge remain stable.

How is cognitive change measured in older adults?

It's assessed through tests comparing memory, reasoning, and processing speed over time or against age-based norms, considering individual variability.

Does cognitive ability inevitably decline in late adulthood?

Some abilities typically slow down, but many people maintain stable or even improved knowledge and vocabulary; decline is not uniform.

What factors can protect or improve mental abilities in older adults?

Regular physical activity, mental challenges, social engagement, good nutrition, and managing health conditions can all support better cognitive aging.

What are the main types of aging people experience as they grow older?

There are biological changes in the body, psychological shifts in thinking and emotions, and social changes in roles and relationships, all interacting throughout adulthood.

How do these types of aging evolve during adulthood?

Physical abilities tend to decline gradually, mental functions show mixed patterns of stability and change, and social roles often become more focused and meaningful.

What challenges affect problem-solving skills in later years?

Slower processing speed, reduced working memory, and difficulty handling novel situations can make solving complex problems harder.

How can older adults offset these difficulties?

By relying on experience, using practical strategies, breaking problems into smaller parts, and seeking advice or collaboration when needed.

How does post-formal thought influence decision-making in adults?

It allows adults to recognize complexity, weigh multiple perspectives, accept uncertainty, and integrate emotions with logic, leading to more flexible and context-sensitive choices.

How do the concepts of lifespan and healthspan differ?

One refers to the total number of years a person lives, while the other focuses on the years spent in good physical and mental health without significant illness or disability.

What is information processing capacity, and how does it change with age?

It's the brain's ability to take in, interpret, and respond to information, which generally slows down in later years.

What is cognitive reserve, and how does it affect aging?

This refers to the brain's resilience to damage, built through education, mental activity, and experience, helping some people maintain function despite age-related changes.

In what ways can broader life contexts influence the aging process?

Factors like socioeconomic status, social support, cultural attitudes, and access to healthcare shape how individuals experience physical and mental changes as they grow older.

Why does being socially connected help protect against aging, and what risks come from isolation?

Close relationships provide emotional support and mental stimulation that slow decline, while isolation increases stress, loneliness, and risk of cognitive problems.

How does the brain adapt to age-related decline?

It recruits additional brain areas, forms new neural connections, and uses experience and strategies to compensate for losses in speed or memory

What evidence shows physical fitness helps slow aging, and what brain changes result from exercise?

Studies link regular activity to better memory and slower cognitive decline; exercise increases blood flow, stimulates growth of new neurons, and strengthens connections in key brain regions.

What forms of exercise are effective in slowing physical aging?

Activities that combine cardiovascular endurance, strength training, balance, and flexibility help maintain overall health and reduce age-related decline

How does regularly engaging in mental tasks help maintain cognitive function?

Practicing skills like problem-solving, memory exercises, and learning new information strengthens neural pathways and builds resilience against decline.

What evidence supports a link between diet and reduced dementia risk?

Studies find that diets rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, healthy fats, and antioxidants are associated with lower incidence of cognitive impairment.

What evidence challenges a direct connection between nutrition and dementia prevention?

Some research shows inconsistent results, with certain supplements or diets failing to produce significant cognitive benefits, indicating other factors also play major roles.

How does sleep influence the risk or progression of dementia?

Poor or insufficient sleep can lead to buildup of harmful proteins in the brain, reduce clearance of toxins, and impair memory processes, increasing dementia risk.

How do free radicals contribute to aging and end-of-life processes?

These unstable molecules cause cellular damage by attacking DNA, proteins, and lipids, accelerating decline.

What is the cellular clock theory's role in aging?

It suggests cells have a limited number of divisions before they stop functioning, contributing to aging.

How does metabolic stress affect lifespan?

Excessive energy use and byproducts strain cells, leading to damage and reduced function over time.

In what way does DNA damage influence aging?

Accumulated mutations impair cell repair and function, promoting deterioration.

How does mitochondrial damage impact the aging process?

Damage to the cell's energy producers lowers energy availability and increases harmful byproducts.

What role do environmental toxins play in aging and mortality?

Exposure to pollutants and chemicals causes cellular injury and disrupts normal biological processes.

What defines brain death?

It occurs when all brain activity, including the brainstem, permanently stops, meaning no chance of recovery.

How is clinical death characterized?

It refers to the cessation of heartbeat and breathing, but some functions might be temporarily reversible.

What is biological death?

The irreversible breakdown of all bodily systems, resulting in the end of life.

What does social death mean?

It describes when a person is treated as if they are no longer alive by others, often due to isolation or severe illness, even though biological life continues.

How do young children typically understand death?

They often see death as temporary or reversible, lacking awareness of its finality.

How does understanding of death change in middle childhood?

: Children begin to grasp that death is final and universal, but may still struggle with abstract concepts.

How do adolescents and adults conceptualize death?

They tend to understand death as inevitable and permanent, incorporating cultural and personal beliefs about its meaning.

What is the first stage in the Kübler-Ross model of grief?

Denial, where individuals refuse to accept the reality of loss.

What follows denial in the five stages?

Anger, expressing frustration or resentment about the situation.

What comes after anger?

Bargaining, where people try to negotiate or make deals to reverse or lessen the loss.

What is the fourth stage?

Depression, involving deep sadness and withdrawal.

What is the final stage?

Acceptance, where individuals come to terms with the loss.

How does prolonged grief differ from typical grieving?

It involves intense, persistent mourning that interferes with daily life and lasts much longer than usual.

What makes disenfranchised grief different from common grief experiences?

It occurs when a loss is not openly acknowledged or socially supported, making it harder to express and process.

What do alternative grief models include that traditional models often miss?

They recognize that grief is non-linear, highly individual, and influenced by cultural and social contexts, allowing for varied expressions and timelines.

What is life review, and why is it important near the end of life?

It's a process of reflecting on one's past, finding meaning, resolving conflicts, and achieving a sense of fulfillment.

What does self-determination theory emphasize in the context of dying?

The importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to maintain psychological well-being and dignity during end-of-life.