Quiz 2 religion

mantra

mantra

a sacred utterance, syllable, word, set of phonemes, acoustic formulas, or group of words, often in Sanskrit, believed to have spiritual or supernatural powers; the earliest written record of these is in Vedic scriptures, in which they often appear as hymns; still used today in meditation.

OṂ (aum)

a sacred sound and syllable; the most well known of the bija-mantras ("seed mantras") whose meanings and connotations differ across South Asian traditions. The Upanishads claim that all speech and thought are derived from it; the Yoga Sutras state that it expresses ultimate reality: in the cosmos, in the Lord of Yoga, and in the individual. The Upanishads break it into its constituent sounds (a + u + m) and equate each to three of the "four states"—waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—the fourth state being without sound. It is an incantation used before and during the recitation of sacred texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies and rites of passages, samskaras, such as weddings, and during meditative activities such as yoga (see YIP 108 and YS 36-38 for more).

nāḍi

in both Hindu and Buddhist mapping of the yogic body, one of an elaborate network of some 72,000 subtle ducts of the yogic body, through which breath and vital energy are channeled. Of these, the three that run through the center (sushumnā), along the right (piṅkalā), and along the left (iḍā) sides of the spinal column are most prominent. Discussed in the Upanishads, but later developed in Tantric texts as containing chakras.

chakra

"circle," "wheel," a hierarchy of energy centers aligned along the spinal column. Early Buddhist sources mention four, but later Hindu Tantras expand them to five, six, seven, eight, and more.

kundalini

"She who is coiled," the dormant feminine energy thought to be contained in all of us; often symbolized as a serpent, its tail in its mouth, coiled around the base of the spine. The goal of Kundalini Yoga is the awakening of this otherwise sleeping serpent and making her rise through the chakras into the cranial vault. Her awakening and rapid rise effects the practitioner's inner transformation.

Shakti

"feminine energy"; in Hindu Tantra, the power of the feminine that enlivens all of existence; the energy of a deity embodied in his female consort; a name of the great Goddess or any one of her subordinate goddesses/energies.

yogini

the term for both a master female practitioner of yoga and also the sacred feminine force incarnate in any one of a number of goddesses, often fierce and sexualized. Also a female Tantric consort, ideally (at one point in time) low-caste women who were thought to be possessed by, or embodiments of, Tantric goddesses. According to one Hindu scripture (Neta Tantra), these goddesses eat people, consuming the sins of the body that would otherwise bind them to suffering rebirth, and so allow for the union of their purified souls with the supreme god Shiva. Whether by consuming the sexual emissions of these women, through the bliss of sexual orgasm with them, or imagining union with them in meditation, Tantric yogis could realize a breakthrough into transcendent levels of consciousness.

Sufi

a follower of a mystical sect of Islam or an adjective describing a text, person, or practice associated with this mystical tradition. Seventeenth century texts (most notably the Pool of Nectar) circulating in Persia, Turkey, North Africa, and India and associated with Sufis refer to practices associated with hātha yoga.

Qur'an/Koran

the Islamic sacred book, believed to be the word of God as dictated to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel and written down in Arabic. The Koran consists of 114 units of varying lengths, known as suras; the first sura is said as part of the ritual prayer. These touch upon all aspects of human existence, including matters of doctrine, social organization, and legislation.

sura

a chapter or section of the Qur'an.

Mughals

a dynasty of Turkish origin from the area now known as Afghanistan. The Mughal emperors built and ruled the Mughal Kingdom, encompassing areas now known as India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh, from the early sixteenth to the early eighteenth century.

Akbar

the third Mughal emperor, who ruled from 1556 to 1605. A patron of art and culture, Akbar brought many yogic scholars and texts into his court.

jina

"conquerer"; title or epithet of a Jain tīrthamkara, one of the 24 saviors of the present world age. Mahāvīra, the sixth-century BCE Jain founder, is the last of this series.

arhat

"omniscient one," "perfected person"; in Buddhism and Jainism, someone who has attained nirvana, or the goal of spiritual life.

ashtānga yoga

"eight-limbed yoga," term denoting the yoga system of the Yoga Sutra (comprising yama, niyama, āsana, prānāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāranā, dhyāna, and samādhi).

samādhi

"composition, meditative contemplation"; the final limb of yoga practice.

dhyāna

"unwavering attention to the single thread of thought"; an unbroken flow of the same thought, uninterrupted by any extraneous thought or idea; yogic mediation, ritual visualization, inner vision; instructions for visualizing a Tantric deity.

nama

"restraint"; the various ethical rules and behavioral restraints comprising the first limb of eight-limbed yoga.

niyama

"Outer restraints," or personal purificatory rituals that comprise the second limb of eight-limbed yoga.

hatha yoga

"forcible practice"; body of yogic practice that combines postures (āsanas), breath control (pranayama), seals (mudras), and locks (bandhas) to reverse the normal downward flow of energy, fluids, and consciousness in the body, and thereby afford bodily immortality, supernatural powers, and liberation for the practitioner.

Nāth

"master/lord," member of a tantric order of yogis that traces its origins back to the twelfth century founder Goraknāth, to whom several foundational yogic texts are attributed. Goraknāth and other fully realized members of the Nāth orders are referred to as Nāth siddhas.

mahāmudrā

"Great Seal"; in Tantric Buddhism, the direct experience of non-duality, the full and perfect awakening characterized by the gnosis of bliss. The terms is also applied to the sublime consort of the tantric practitioner, who is also identified with the bliss-induced heat arising in the region of the navel due to seminal non-emission in ritual intercourse with a human consort.

math

monastery

sadhu

holy man, traveling mendicant

naga

mythologically, a semi-divine being with a snake body with male or female head, thought to guard territory. Maclean translates the word as "naked."

sannyasi

Hindu mendicant; a person in the final stage of renunciation among the four stages of the Hindu life cycle (others being Brahmacarya [unmarried student], Grihasta [householder], and Vanaprastha [forest dweller, retired]).

gosain

from the Sanskrit, giri gōswāmi, or "lord of the senses" or "lord of passion." It is used as a title in various religious traditions hailing from the Indian subcontinent, and includes most notably Hindu ascetics who were powerful itinerant nomadic and mercenary traders who undertook pilgrimages across tremendous areas of land.

akhara

a group or sect of sadhus (usually militant ones)

sabha

organization, gathering

Allahabad

"place of god;" the site of the Kumbh Mela, in Uttar Pradesh in northern India.

Dashnami sannyasin

Hindu Saivite ascetic who belongs to one of the ten orders (dashnami, "ten names") established by the philosopher Shankara in the eighth century. Each order is attached to one of four monasteries (maths) also ascribed to Shankara, in the north, south, east, and west parts of India. (These include Jyoti Math, near Haridwar, Uttar Pradesh -which borders Nepal.)

Prayag

(Sanskrit: place of sacrifice), holy place now called Allahabad; site of the convergence of the three sacred rivers (triveni sangam).

prayagwal

literally, "prag-wallas" (trans., "prag-sellers")—the priests of Prayag.

pandas

Brahmin priests

mela

festival; fair.

Puranas

Sanskrit texts dating from as early as 4th century CE, containing detailed sacred myth and folklore.

Ganga River

major river that flows through India and Bangladesh, flowing from the western Himalayas south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India. One of the most sacred rivers to Hindus, and worshipped as a goddess.

Yamuna River

Also known as the Jamna, the largest and second-longest tributary river of the Ganges in northern India, merging with the Ganges at Triveni Sangam at Allahabad. Highly venerated and worshipped as the goddess Yamuna. In Hindu mythology, Yamuna is the daughter of the sun god, Suriya, and sister of Yama, the god of death.

Saraswati River

an unseen rover said to flow underground and converges with the Ganga and Yamuna to form the three braids of the famed triveni.

kumbh

"pot," "urn"

Kumbh Mela

"festival of the urn"; the urn, or pot, is said to be filled with the nectar of immortality, which is said to be accessible to pilgrims who bathe at the conjunction of the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers. Said to occur every twelve years, it is the "biggest show on earth," drawing as many as 30 million visitors on the most auspicious day. Karma Maclean argues that it did not exist until after 1860.

Magh

a month in the Indian lunar cycle; January-February

amrita

nectar of immortality

British East India Company

English company formed for the exploitation of trade within East and Southeast Asia and India, incorporated by a royal charter in 1600. Starting as a monopolistic trading company, it became involved in politics and acted as an agent of British imperialism in India from the early eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century (though Britain maintained its hold on India until 1947).

darśan (darshan)

seeing/being seen by a god or goddess.

mahant

a religious superior or figurehead

Mangal Pandey

an Indian sepoy (soldier) who triggered the 1857 Rebellion when he opened fire on a British officer. The officer had attempted to enforce the use of an Enfield rifle cartridge, which Muslim and Hindu fighters believed to be encased in beef and pork fat. The unrest spread to elements of the civilian population, and Pandey was hanged.

Mount Kailasa

abode of the gods—most specifically, Shiva.

churning of the milk ocean

creation story found in Rig Veda and Puranas detailing how the gods and demons churned the milk sea with a snake wrapped around Mount Kailasa. The demons stole the nectar of immortality that came forth from the mountain, and the gods needed it back.

tīrtha

Sanskrit: "crossing place," "ford;" holy place, often pilgrim destination marked by water.

Hardwar (also Haridwar)

(Sanskrit dvara) means door or gateway: hari-dvar (the door to Hari, another name for the god Vishnu); hara-dvar (the door to Hara, another name for the Shiva); ganga-dvar (the door to the Ganges); svarga-dvar (the door to heaven); moksha-dvar (door to liberation). An ancient city in Uttarakhand ("north" "land"), North India; also a place for the Kumbh Mela.

Jawaharlal Nehru

India's first prime minister 1947-1964 (d). Emerged as a key leader of the Indian independence movement under the tutelage of Mahatma Gandhi. Considered the architect of the modern Indian nation-state.

Mahatma Gandhi

(1869-1948) Indian activist and leader of the Indian independence movement against British rule who employed non-violence (ahimsa), non-violent civil disobedience, and satyagraha ("holding firmly to truth"). Influenced by many religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Christianity—he claimed the Bhagavad Gita as his spiritual dictionary and greatest influence on his life.

Narendra Modi

Prime Minister of India, 2014- present. Chief Minister of Gujarat, 2001-2014. A member of the BJP and proponent of International Yoga Day.

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

"Indian People's Party," one of the two major political parties in India, along with the National Congress. As of 2016, the largest political party in terms of representation in parliament and congress. A right-wing party with ties to the Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sang (RSS, or "National Patriotic/Volunteer Organization"), a right-wing, nationalist, paramilitary volunteer association. Founded 1925; claims to be the world's largest volunteer missionary association.