all ap pysch

Developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, & social-emotional development through the lifespan.

Cross-sectional study

Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Longitudinal study

Research that follows & retests the same people over time.

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals & viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development & cause harm.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes & they look away sooner.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Critical period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, & external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary sex characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts & hips, male voice quality, & body hair.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation.

Menarche

The first menstrual period.

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Sex

In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, & intersex.

Gender

In psychology, the attitudes, feelings, & behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex.

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Relational aggression

An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing.

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Gender role

A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, & traits for men & for women.

Gender identity

Our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male & female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, & the social affiliation that may result from this identity.

Social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing & imitating & by being rewarded or punished.

Gender typing

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Sexuality

Our thoughts, feelings, & actions related to our physical attraction to another.

Social script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Sexual orientation

According to the APA (2015), 'a person's sexual & emotional attraction to another person & the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.'

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, & communicating.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes & interprets information.

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions & motor activities.

Object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, & number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Concrete operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events.

Formal operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Scaffold

In Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

Theory of mind

People's ideas about their own & others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, & thoughts, & the behaviors these might predict.

Language

Our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, & the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Phoneme

In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Morpheme

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

Grammar

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with & understand others; semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, & syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Universal grammar (UG)

Humans' innate predisposition to understand the principles & rules that govern grammar in all languages.

Overgeneralization

The application of a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation; usually occurs during language acquisition; shows that the person, either a child or an older person learning a second language, is learning that there are specific rules to language.

Babbling stage

The stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.

One-word stage

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Two-word stage

The stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences.

Telegraphic speech

The early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - 'go car' - using mostly nouns & verbs.

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

A frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

A brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension & expression.

Ecological systems theory

A theory of social environment's influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences.

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Attachment

An emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers & showing distress on separation.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

Strange situation

A procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves & then returns, & the child's reactions are observed.

Secure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, & find comfort in the caregiver's return.

Insecure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity & intensity.

Basic trust

According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable & trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood, including experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect.

Self-concept

All our thoughts & feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question 'Who am I?'.

Identity

Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing & integrating various roles.

Social identity

The 'we' aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to 'Who am I?' that comes from our group membership.

Intimacy

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.

Emerging adulthood

A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

Social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, & retirement.

zone of proximal development

Space between what a learner can do without assistance & what they cannot do at all; part of Vygotsky's social-cultural theory of childhood cognition

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular war to objects, people, and events

Peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

Central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

Norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

Social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared aby a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. usually involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ingroup

"us" ~ people with whom we share a common identity

Outgroup

"them" ~ those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

Ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

Scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

Mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others