AP Bio Unit 1 Test

Order

Property of life; Living things are highly organized in structure and function; Structure and function are related at all levels

Reproduction

Property of life; Organisms reproduce their own kind

Growth and Development

Property of life; Organisms increase in size and complexity (life grows by internal changes)

Energy Processing

Property of life; Organisms take in energy and transform it to do work; Organisms are “open” systems, they must continually take in energy

Response to Environment

Property of life; Organisms respond to changes/stimuli in their environment; The speed of the response may be “fast” or “slow”

Regulation

Property of life; Life processes must be controlled and adjusted; Organisms must maintain their internal environment within tolerable limits (homeostasis)

 Evolution Adaptation

Property of life; Organisms change over time because of their adaptations to their environment; Organisms must adapt - move or die

Negative Feedback

When your body naturally reacts to get a system back into homeostatic range

ex: Glucose Levels; Your body releases insulin if your blood sugar gets too high

Positive Feedback

When your body responds to an unplanned event that makes systems overreact

ex: Cuts; platelets increase in order to clot the wound

Inductive Reasoning

Starting from a set of specific observations to reach a general conclusion

ex: humans require organic molecules, fish require organic molecules, therefore all animals must require organic molecules

Deductive Reasoning

A type of logic in which specific results are predicted from a general premise.

ex: All dogs have ears; golden retrievers are dogs, therefore they have ears

Matter

Anything with volume and mass

Macroelements

Elements needed in large quantities

ex: H, O, N, C (P, K, S, Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, Cl)

Microelements

Elements needed in small quantities (trace elements)

ex: Cu, Co, Zn, I, Mn

Atomic number

Number of protons in the nucleus

Atomic Mass

Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different atomic masses (changes in the number of neutrons)

Radioactive Isotopes

Where the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy

Heavy Isotopes

Has a stable nucleus, but masses more than the standard isotope for the element

Valence Electrons

The electrons on the outermost energy level (electrons available for chemical bonds)

Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

When electrons are shared equally between atoms (very strong bond)

Polar Covalent Bonds

When electrons are shared unequally between atoms (water)

Ionic Bonds

Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another and ions are formed (weak bond)

Cation

Loses electrons (positive charge)

Anion

Gains electrons (negative charge)

Hydrogen Bonds

When a hydrogen atom bonded to one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative area (N or O) of another molecule (weak individual bond, but strong when there are a lot of them)

Cohesion

Water sticks to water (hydrogen bonding); helps to facilitate photosynthesis

Adhesion

Water sticks to other (polar) molecules (hydrogen bonding); helps water move through plant vessels

Surface Tension

The surface of water is very difficult to stretch or break (hydrogen bonding); bugs can walk on water and collect nutrients

High Specific Heat

It takes a lot of energy to raise one gram of water one degree C (hydrogen bonding); water can stabilize temperature

High Heat of Vaporization

It takes a lot of heat for water to convert to vapor; (hydrogen bonding); water cools organisms from excessive heat buildup

Water expands when it freezes

The distance between water molecules increases from the liquid to the solid form; forms crystalline structure; ice can float; (Hydrogen bonding)

Why is water known as a ‘Universal Solvent’

Water’s unique chemical properties give it the ability to dissolve many different materials, which is why it is known as a universal solvent.

Hydrophillic

Materials that dissolve in water (have polar regions on their molecules for H⁺ bonds)

Hydrophobic

Materials that repel water (have non-polar bonds)

pH Scale

Logarithmic scale for showing H⁺ concentration; each pH unit is a 10x change in H⁺

Acids

pH < 7

Bases

pH > 7

Buffers

Materials that have both acid and base properties; resists pH shifts

Hydrocarbon

Organic molecules made of ONLY hydrogen and carbon (fatty acids are hydrocarbons)

Isomer

Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structures; results in different molecular and chemical properties

Structural Isomers

Different in covalent arrangements of their atoms

Geometric Isomers

Same covalent partnership but different in spacial arrangements

Enantiomers

Molecules that are mirror images of each other

Functional Groups

A group of atoms attached to a carbon skeleton (have consistent properties)

Hydroxyl

Polar; can form hydrogen bonds easily

Carbonyl

Non-polar; found in sugars;

Keytones = found in the middle of a molecule Aldehyde = found on the ends of molecules

Carboxyl

Tends to be acidic; slightly polar (gives H⁺ away)

Amino

Tends to be basic; proteins; (looking for H⁺)

Sulfhydryl

Only wants to bond with Sulfur; forms disulfide bridges

Phosphate

Polar; contributes negative charge; ATP

Methyl

Non-polar; DNA; Hormones

Carbohydrates: Uses

Fuel, building materials, receptions

Carbohydrates: Made of

C, H, O; C:H:O ratio is 1:2:1

Carbohydrates: general formula

CH₂O

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars, can be in linear or ring form; 3-7 Carbons;

ex: glucose, galactose, ribose, fructose

Disaccharides

Sugar formed by joining two monosaccharides; double the amount of Carbons

ex: Maltose = glucose + glucose; Lactose = glucose + galactose; Sucrose = glucose + fructose (sweetest)

Oligosaccharides

Used in cell membranes; 2-10 joined simple sugars

Polysaccharides

Many joined simple sugars; used for storage or structure;

ex: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen (ALL made of only glucose)

Starch

Fuel storage in plants- very easy to break down

Cellulose

Used for structure in plant cell walls (humans cannot break it down- fiber)

Glycogen

Found in liver and muscle cells

Lipids

Diverse hydrophobic molecules

Lipids: Made of & C:O ratio

C, H, O; no general formula; C:O ratio is very high in C

Fats

Solid at room temp

Oils

Liquid at room temp

Hydrophobic = ??

Non-Polar

Fatty Acids

A long carbon chain (12-18 Carbons) with a -COOCH (carboxyl group) (acid) on one end, and a -CH₃ (methyl group) (fat) on the other

Triglycerides

Most fats have 3 fatty acids attached to the glycerol

Saturated fats

No double bonds (tend to be solid)

Unsaturated fats

One or more C=C bonds; can accept more hydrogens; double bonds put kinks in the molecule’s shape

Fats are used for:

Energy storage, cushions for organs, insulation

Phospholipids

Similar to fats, but only have two fatty acids; the third -OH of glycerol is joined to a phosphate-containing molecule

Phospholipid Structure

Have a hydrophilic head, and hydrophobic tails; self assembles into bilayers, as an important part of cell membranes

Steroids

Lipids with 4 fused rings, differ in functional groups attached to the rings

ex: Cholesterol & Sex hormones

Protein: Uses

Molecular tools of the cell

Used for: Structure, enzymes, antibodies, transport, movement, receptors, hormones

Protein: Made of

C, H, O, N, (sometimes S); no general formula

Protein Structure

Polypeptide chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Amino Acids

All have a carbon with 4 attachments

R Groups

20 different kinds; Properties of R groups determine the properties of the protein

Polypeptide chains

Formed by dehydration synthesis between the Carboxyl group of one Amino Acid and the Amino group of another Amino Acid

Protein Structure Levels: Primary

Sequence of Amino Acids in the polypeptide chain; Peptide bonds

Protein Structure Levels: Secondary

3-D structure formed by bonding between parts of the peptide backbone; Two main structures: Helix & Pleated sheets; Hydrogen Bonding

Protein Structure Levels: Tertiary

Bonding between the R-Groups; Ionic bonding; Disulfide bridges (covalent bond)

ex: hydrophobic interactions

Protein Structure Levels: Quaternary

When two or more polypeptides unite to form a functional protein

ex: hemoglobin

Denaturing of a Protein

Events that cause a protein to lose its structure (and function)

ex: pH shifts, high salt concentrations, heat

Chaperone Proteins

Large protein complexes that help fold other proteins into their correct shape; Often used when cell are stressed to keep the proteins intact and functioning

Nucleic Acids: uses

Informational polymers- used in DNA and RNA

Nucleic Acids: Made of

C, H, O, N, P; no general formula

Parts of Nucleotide

Nitrogenous Base, Pentose Sugar, Phosphate

Nitrogenous Bases

Rings of C & N; N atoms take up H⁺ (base);

Two types: Pyrimidines (single ring) and Purines (double ring)

Pentose Sugar

5-C sugar;

Ribose (RNA) & Deoxyribose (DNA) differ in an -OH group on their second Carbon

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid; makes up genes; genetic information for life; double helix

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid; structure and protein synthesis; genetic information for a few viruses only; single helix

Dehydration Synthesis

The chemical reaction that joins monomers into polymers; covalent bonds are formed by the removal of a water molecule between the monomers

Hydrolysis

Reverse of dehydration synthesis; breaks polymers into monomers by adding water