chapter 2 - stress & coping

stress

non-specific mental or somatic result of any demand upon the body

- multidimensional phenomenon

coping

strategies one employs to deal w/ stresses caused by demands of the environment

- planned w/ the outcome of minimal risk

challenges w/ defining stress and coping

varies bc they are often highly personalized + reflect one's unique life experiences

stress literacy

degree to which an individual (or community) understands the effects of stress

implications of viewing stress as a social construct

- may make it acceptable as a cause of behaviour comparable to other causes

- can be used to explain the "inexplicable", undermining confidence in one's health + ability to cope

stress experience

produced through a person-environment transaction that, through either underarousal or overarousal, results in psychological or physiological distress

- uncontrolled + can result in serious consequences

stimulus-based (perspectives to study stress)

looks at the impact of life events + their relationship to physical illness when stress is excessive

response-based (perspectives to study stress)

looks at connections between physiological responses to stress + physical illness

interactional (perspectives to study stress)

looks at relationship between person & environment

- views stress as resulting from the imbalance between perception of demands of a situation + ability to cope w/ demands

eustress

positive stress associated w/ increased motivation + acceptance of challenge

strain

long-term consequences of exposure to stress, resulting in physiological problems

homeostasis

dynamic physiological response of the body to maintain a stable internal state in spite of environmental demands

fight-or-flight response

body's complex autonomic reaction when faced w/ a perceived threat

- implications for physical illness if continuously activated

tend-and-befriend (bio-behavioural alternative to fight-or-flight)

under stress, ppl (especially women) often provide support to others and bond with/seek support from others

- increases likelihood of survival

physiology of stress

complex response that begins when one perceives a real or IMAGINED threat

- involves two major components: nervous system & endocrine system

nervous system - role in stress response

made up of CNS and PNS

sympathetic adrenomedullary (SAM) system

initiates fight-or-flight through release of adrenaline and noradrenaline from the adrenal medulla as mediated by the sympathetic nervous system

(hypothalamus > SNS > adrenal medulla > catecholamines)

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

delayed response to stress that attempts to minimize initial impact + restore body to a balanced state

(hypothalamus > pituitary gland > adrenal cortex > glucocorticoids & mineralocorticoids)

glucocorticoids

substances released by adrenal glands upon stimulation from sympathetic division when one is under stress

endocrine system - role in stress response

responds to stress more slowly, but can persist for weeks

- includes pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and pancreas

central nervous system (CNS)

brain & spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

somatic system & autonomic system (sympathetic / parasympathetic divisions)

hypothalamus

initiates the stress response in both the nervous system and endocrine system

adrenal medulla

secretes catecholamines (adrenaline & noradrenaline) when hypothalamus initiates stress response

sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

responsible for fight-or-flight response when triggered by hypothalamus

(e.g., faster heartbeat, increased blood pressure)

limbic system

responsible for emotion in the stress response

reticular formation

serves as a communication network to filter messages between brain and body

parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

activated by hypothalamus to re-establish homeostasis + promote reconstructive process following stress experience

general adaptation syndrome (GAS) - selye

three-stage adaptive response of body to stressors

1. alarm

2. resistance

3. exhaustion

alarm

body mobilizes its defences against a stressor; fight-or-flight

resistance

set of physiological responses that allow one to deal w/ a stressor

- mobilization of resources when stress moves from acute to chronic

diseases of adaptation

illnesses resulting from long-term neurological and hormonal changes caused by ongoing stress

exhaustion

body experiences fatigue + immunocompromise bc of severity and duration of a stressor

allostatic load

long-term physiological impact of chronic exposure to stress + trying to maintain homeostasis

- accumulation of strain

criticisms of GAS

-narrow biological focus (animal studies)

-neglects psychosocial influences

stress-diathesis model

examines the interaction between environment and heredity (nature vs. nurture)

- proposes that ppl may be predisposed to experience a physical effect in the presence of stressful events

cognitive transactional models

emphasizes the relationship between a person and environment + the appraisal the individual makes of the situation

cognitive appraisal

assessment of whether or not an event is stressful

primary appraisal

initial evaluation of an event

- three types: irrelevant, benign-positive, stressful

irrelevant - type of primary appraisal

event has no implications for one's well-being, thus requiring no response

benign-positive - type of primary appraisal

event involves outcomes that are positive + may enhance well-being

stressful - type of primary appraisal

event involves harm/loss, threat, or challenge

harm/loss (stressful primary appraisal)

involves significant physical or psychological loss

threat (stressful primary appraisal)

anticipating situations of harm/loss

- allows one to prepare for impact of event

challenge (stressful primary appraisal)

perceived to be stressful, but focus is on positive excitement and potential growth

secondary appraisal

evaluation of one's ability to cope w/ situation

reappraisal

existing appraisals are continuously changed/modified on the basis of new info

vulnerability

physically, the adequacy of one's resources

psychologically, a threat to smt an individual values

person + situation variables - influences of appraisal

interact w/ eachother to influence the appraisal of a situation

commitments (person variables)

values that determine the importance of an encounter + affect choices made to achieve desired outcome

beliefs (personal variables)

pre-existing notions (personal/cultural) that determine the meaning given to environment

other influences of appraisal (situation variables)

1. novelty

2. predictability

3. event uncertainty

4. imminence

5. duration

6. temporal uncertainty

7. timing

novelty (situation variables)

one's previous experiences w/ a situation

predictability (situation variables)

characteristics of environment that can be learned or discerned

event uncertainty (situation variables)

inability to predict the probability of an event (thus, increasing the stress response)

imminence (situation variables)

interval during which an event is being anticipated

- more intense as it gets closer

duration (situation variables)

time period in which a stressful event occurs

- continued exposure compromises resistance & leads to exhaustion

temporal uncertainty (situation variables)

lack of knowledge about when an event will occur

timing (situation variables)

when stressful events occur in the context of the life cycle

(e.g., moving when 7 months pregnant --> HIGH stress)

interactions between personality & disease

- specific personality profile might cause specific disease to develop

- particular disease could cause particular personality profile

- personality affects/filters response to an illness

type A behaviour pattern

includes impatience, time urgency, hostility, aggressiveness, and competitiveness

wright's multi-causal pathway

Type A behaviour in combination with family history of coronary heart disease, lifestyle risks and anger identified as the core risk factors

social dominance

set of controlling behaviours, including tendency to cut off/talk over smo

- risk factor for coronary heart disease that is independent of hostility

conscientiousness

higher levels --> longer life + more positive health behaviours

lower levels --> disinhibition + reckless, present-centred behaviours

three components of coping

- coping response (intentional physical or mental act)

- coping goal (i.e., reduce impact of stress)

- coping outcomes

problem-focused coping

actively addressing stressors associated w/ a disease by acting on the best alternative solution

- rational approach to reduce demands placed upon us

two types of problem-focused coping

proactive & combative

proactive coping

potential stressors are anticipated and acted on to either prevent or decrease its impact

combative coping

reacting to an unavoidable stressor in a manner designed to cope

emotion-focused coping

focusing on ways to reduce emotional impact of a disease w/o trying to cure it

- using cognitive (e.g., avoidance) or behavioural (e.g., meditation) techniques

- tend to use this when one believes nothing can be done

personal resources

available to us in our own lives to reduce potential for stressful events and help us cope w/ stressful events as they occur

social support (personal resource)

collection of interpersonal resources we have to help us avoid or cope w/ difficult times

forms of social support

- emotional

- informational

- tangible (direct aid or services)

stress-buffering hypothesis

hypothesis that social support has an indirect effect + acts as a buffer to protect ppl from stressful events

personal control

influences one's ability to cope w/ stress, achieved either cognitively or behaviourally

positive psychology

encourages fewer negative or problem-focused frameworks, focusing more on effective human functioning

resilience

concept in positive psyc describing good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation or development

- positive adaptation

self-compassion

effective stress-buffering strategy w/ three components: self-kindness, common humanity, & mindfulness

stress management

ways to directly or indirectly cope w/ stress

relaxation techniques

reduces anxiety to manageable levels so that energy can positively influence performance

- aims to induce hypometabolic response and inhibit hypermetabolic (fight-or-flight) response

progressive muscular relaxation (PMR)

gradual flexing and relaxing of muscle groups, one by one

meditation

one attempts to focus attention fully on a single thought or image

biofeedback

recording of physiological measures through electronic instruments that provide immediate feedback concerning one's state in attempt to modify it

systematic desensitization

combines relaxation w/ gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimulus

modelling

observing a model coping well w/ a situation facilitates the same response by the observer in similar situation

participant modelling

subsequent to observing a model, one is encouraged to engage in the behaviour while receiving reassurance from the model

cognitive restructuring

maladaptive, stress-producing cognitions are identified and replaced w/ ones more appropriate

- beliefs abt events, not the events itself, that create stressful emotional events

stress innoculation training

three-stage process designed to help cope

1. examine how one conceptualizes stress

2. learn + rehearse coping strategies

3. reconceptualized approach, both behavioural and cognitive, is applied to relevant situations through imagery/role-playing