Neurodevelopment and Poverty Exam 2

neglect

omission of needed caregiver behaviors

physical neglect

inadequate care, inadequate hygiene, inadequate environment

supervisory neglect

parental incapacitation, parental absence, inappropriate people in home

emotional negelct

don’t feel important/loved, not provided strength and support, family wasn’t close/look out for each other

3 parts of executive functioning

1. response inhibition
2. cognitive flexibility
3. working memory

PFC subregions

dorsomedial (includes superior frontal gyrus), dorsolateral (includes middle frontal gyrus), ventromedial, orbitofrontal, ventrolateral

inhibition

this part of executive functioning shows rapid improvements in early childhood (3-6yo) and improves through middle childhood (8-12yo)

4\.5 years old

age where inhibition engages ONLY medial PFC

9 year olds

do 9yo or adults have more PFC activation during inhibition?y

inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)

inhibition is associated with activation of this brain region (hint: in PFC)

working memory

this part of executive functioning develops linearly between age 4-14, and levels off at age 15

salience and fronto-parietal control network

as children age, flexibility/shifting increases activation in this network

flexibility

this part of executive functioning reaches adult-like levels at 15yo

dlPFC

as children age, shifting tasks involves decreased activation in what brain region?

2 years old

effects of poverty on EF emerge as early as ________

early childhood enrichment

what mediates the effect of income on WM (Hackman et al., 2015)

bucharest early intervention project (Hymphreys et al., 2022)

study where foster care kids have higher IQ scores, WM, perceptual reasoning, and verbal comprehension compared to institutionalized children

Hair et al 2015

Study where low SES= atypical gray matter development in frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and hippocampus. Gray matter smaller for children below poverty line. Lower SES= achievement deficits explained by frontal and temporal lobe differences

Tomlinson et al 2020

Study where lower family income resulted in poorer task performance on go/no-go task. Activation in right ACC, thalamus, and IFG= better task performance. Higher poverty= less inhibition activation in IFG, medial temporal gyrus, cuadate, striatum

ACC, thalamus, IFG

Brain regions that are activated when performing better on go/no-go task that measures accuracy and reaction time (so better inhibition)(Tomlinson et al). Hint: there are three

positive

positive or negative correlation between parental education and WM function

negative

positive or negative correlation between parental education and middle frontal gyrus activation during WM task

ACC and lateral PFC

institutionalized children had thicker __ __and__ ____ compared to foster care group

ACC and IFG

foster care group had thinner __ __and__ ______ compared to institutionalized children

thinning

is cortical thickening or thinning related to better IQ?

serve and return interactions

child initiates engagement and parent responds by talking, touching, and eye contact

LENA

talk pedometer that records what kids say. looks for word count, child vocalization frequency, and conversational turn-taking

vocalizations

conversational turn-taking increases as ______ increases (these increase with age)

parental education

what is linked to number of words adults say around children, number of child vocalization, and number of conversational turns

wernicke’s area

brain area involved with phoneme and auditory word perception (understanding language)

Broca’s area

brain area involved with phonological access and output (speaking language)

semantic storage and retrieval

dmPFC, angular gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus, IFG (pars orbitalis) are all involved in this part of language

IFG (pars triangularis)

brain area involved with general verbal retrieval, selection, and WM

occipitotemporal sulcus

brain area involved with visual word form area

ventral stream

stream involved with taking sound and writing and turning it into meaning

dorsal stream

stream involved with speech production and written language generation

Romeo et al 2018

Study where SES correlated with increased cortical thickness in Broca’s area and regions of temporal lobe. Kids intensive summer reading intervention-→ people who responded to intervention had increase in cortical thickness. WEIRDLY most cortical thickening was for low-SES children and those with lowest reading scores

9 months old

EEG studies can see reduced gamma-band power in frontal regions, causing language related differences, in children at what age?

more power high-frequency

EEG combination where you see higher language, cognitive, and social-emotional scores

more power low-frequency

EEG combination where you see developmental, behavioral, attentional, and learning problems

decrease, increase

as kids age, EEG low-frequency power ____ (increase or decrease) and high-frequency power ------

perisylvian

SES is correlated with brain activation in ______ cortex during rhyming tasks in children/adolescents

elision measure

Test where you say a word without saying a specific sound

blending words

test where you take multiple sounds and put them together to make a word

fusiform gyrus

another term for the visual word form area

fusiform gyrus

this brain region is responsible for getting sound or meaning out of written letters

wernicke’s area

another term for the superior temporal gyrus/perisylvian cortex

language comprehension

superior temporal gyrus/perisylvian cortex/wernicke’s area is responsible for _______?

fusiform gyrus

When low SES had high phonetic awareness, they had high activation in this region. When low SES children had low phonetic awareness, they had low activation in this region

high SES

_____ children had high fusiform activation for both high and low phonetic awareness

right superior temporal gyrus

low-income children with more phonetic awareness had an increase activation in what region besides fusiform gyrus? (high-SES kids did NOT see activation in this area). Hint: pick a left or right side

distal association

theory where low SES-→ impairments/delays in language development

proximal association

theory where variable exposures to language-→ variation in language ability

Broca’s area

more conversational turns= more activation in this area during language processing

left IFG

activation of this brain region explained 48% relationship between conversational turns and language score

experience dependent

neural plasticity that allows for storage of information that is unique to the individual

experience expectant

neural plasticity that is designed to utilize environmental information that is typical of our evolutionary history (ex. pruning)

value learning

process by which we take actions in the world, observe positive or negative consequences, and learn to continue or discontinue behaviors based on the outcomes

primary rewards

naturally elicit a reward response (food, sex, endorphin rush)

secondary rewards

learn to associate with primary rewards (money)

drive reduction

removal of state of need (ex. eating food removes feeling of hunger)

reward learning rate

extent to which a reward prediction error alters subsequent expected values

high learning rate

recent outcomes are heavily weighted

low learning rate

recent outcomes only lead to a small adjustment in value, giving relatively more weight to entire history of outcomes

dopamine

NOT a reward NT, but a learning NT

approach

continue seeking things that provide rewards

avoid

avoid things that lead to losses

tuberoinfundibular pathway

dopamine pathway from hypothalamys to pituitary. Associated with expression of hormone prolactin

nigrostriatal pathway

dopamine pathway from substantia nigra to dorsal striatum. associated with motor responses when achieving reward

mesolimbic pathway

dopamine pathway from VTA to NAcc. Associated with subjective feeling of pleasure from rewarding stimuli

median forebrain bundle

this brain region connects VTA to NAcc and limbic system in mesolimbic pathway

mesocotrical pathway

doapmine pathway from VTA to PFC. Associated with habit formation, reward anticipation and cravings

risk

when one decision or action could lead to one of multiple possible outcomes

risk-taking

tradeoff amount of reward and probabiliy of reward occurring

risk aversion

prefer higher probabilities of low-payoffs to low probabilities of high-payoffs

ambiguity

probability of any one outcome occurring is unknown, uncertain, or variable

ambiguity aversion

tendency to prefer certain outcomes to uncertain ones, even if it comes at a cost

OFC

patients with ______ lesions don’t show risk or ambiguity aversion

OFC and striatum

two brain regions that encode subjective value (how valuable an outcome is to an individual given their risk and ambiguity tolerance and personal factors)

MPFC, striatum, PCC, and amygdala

4 brain regions correlated with individuals subjective value. Activation is higher when there is risk AND ambiguity than risk alone

right IFG, anterior insula, and posterior parietal cortex

3 brain regions associated with ambiguity

delay discounting

tendency to weigh near costs and benefits more heavily than those farther in the future

temporal discount rate

how much we value near rewards compared to distant rewards

vmPFC (OFC) and ventral striatum

temporal discounting is associated with activation in what 2 brain regions

subjective value

objective value of the outcome weighted by the perceived likelihood plus individual level of risk/ambiguity aversion, individuals discount rate, and personal factors

salience network

network involved in orienting attention to surprising, salient, or important events

ACC, anterior insula, vmPFC, supramarginal gyrus

4 brain regions involved in salience network

frontoparietal network

network involved in coordinating goal-oriented attention and behavior

dlPFC and posterior parietal lobe

2 brain regions involved in frontoparietal network

dlPFC

brain region involved in goal directed planning and action, WM

insula

brain region involved in ambiguity aversion

IOFC and vmPFC

brain regions (2) involved in subjective value

ACC

brain region involved in response and conflict resolution

NAcc

brain region involved in motivation reward and value learning

dorsal stream

stream involved in potential action

ventral stream

stream involved with object identity

NAcc

adolescents have proliferation of dopamine receptors in what brain region

risk sensitivity theory

theory that when an animal’s caloric intake is high, they are more risk-averse (prefer low-risk/low-reward), and as energy budget declines, become risk-seeking (prefer high-risk, high-reward)

high-value

low SES children ALWAYS pick risky option when there is a ______ reward, while high SES kids pick the risky option 2/3 of times

high SES

who is more risk averse? low or high SES