Unit 6 - Development

Nature vs Nurture

Nature vs Nurture

how our genetic inheritance interact with our experiences to influence development

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops in an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking; in severe cases, signs include a small out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

(epigenetic effect: leaves chemical marks on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off)

Apgar test

test for newborn babies, 2 points for each category

appearance (skin color), pulse (heart rate), grimace (reflex reactions), activity (muscle tone), and respiration (breathing/crying)

rooting reflex

the tendency for an infant to move its mouth toward any object that touches its cheek

moro reflex

the outstretching of the arms in infants when they are startled or feel like they are falling

(or the outstretching of the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or change in the environment aka getting startled)

Babinski reflex

the projection of the big toe and the fanning of the other toes when the sole of the foot is touched in infants

schema

a concept of framework that organizes and interprets info

assimilation (PIAGET)

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation (PIAGET)

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new info

Sensorimotor stage

(piaget cognitive stages) the stage (from birth to 2 yrs) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

• coordinate sensory input with motor actions

  • mouth, grasp, look, hear, touch

• beginning behavior dominated by innate reflexes

  • sensory - put objects into mouth, looking at items intently, listening to soothing sounds

  • movement - move body by accident and on purpose

• gradual appearance of symbolic thought

• mental symbol to represent thought

• objects do not continue to exist when you cannot see them

  • toy doesn’t exist when under a pillow

  • peek a boo is fun

• objects exist even when no longer visible

  • toy exists under pillow, child still searches for it

• distress when viewing unfamiliar people

  • fear of santa, easter bunny

object permanence (PIAGET)

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (individuals do not have in the sensorimotor stage)

preoperational stage

(piaget cognitive stages) the stage (from abt 2 - 6/7 yrs) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

• improve mental use of symbols

• language development

• make believe play - used to create and express all kinds of mental images

  • pretend play: house, doctor, pirate

• self-centered view of the world

• cannot see others’ perspective

  • I see the tv, so do you

  • unable to state sister has a sister

• focus on just one feature of a problem, neglect other important aspects

  • focus on height of water, ignore the width

  • focus on length of row rather than density

• can’t determine quantity remains the same despite change in container, shape, or size

  • thinks that there is more water in the taller glass, even though it is the same amount as in the short glass

• can’t mentally undo

  • water problem - can’t think of what would happen if poured that water back into the short container

• belief that all things are living, just like oneself

  • dolls are alive

  • tree trimming causes pain

• natural phenomena are created by humans

  • sun is created by man with match

  • rain and thunder are caused by humans

• realism - own perspective is objective and solid

  • names are real to the child and not symbols

• subclasses destroy the original class

  • given two types of flowers - can sort the flowers and state which has more (carnations or roses) but cannot answer whether there are more roses or flowers

• two children talk together on two different topics

  • t: i love my dolly

  • c: i’m coloring my sun yellow

  • t: she has long hair like auntie

  • c: i’ll color the trees yellow too

  • t: my doll’s eyes are shiny

lack conservation (PIAGET)

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the form of objects (individuals do not have in preoperational stage)

egocentrism (PIAGET)

the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states - about their feeling, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

concrete operational stage

(piaget cognitive stages) the stage of cognitive development (form abt 7 - 11 yrs) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

• perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events

• mentally can undo action

  • dog is Labrador, Labrador is a dog

• can see multiple dimensions of an object simultaneously, arrange in sequence, and figure out differences in a series

  • can view “number” and “animal”

• can order objects with respect to a common property

• focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously

• can determine that changing the shape, container, or apparent size does not change the quantity

• can see from multiple perspectives

• starting to follow relationships

• difference between reality and fantasy

• word for word, as it says

• start to understand why something is funny

formal operational stage

(piaget cognitive stages) the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning at age 11/12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

• apply their operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects

• things that are not clear, hard to envision

• what if

• think things through (earlier stages think fast and with trial-and-error)

• thinking about your thinking

zone of proximal development (VYGOTSKY)

the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or collaboration with more capable peers

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 month of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregivers and showing distress on separation

contact comfort (HARLOW)

stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver (infants will chose this over biological needs)

safe haven - the person provides a place of comfort and safety in distress

secure base - the person acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment, a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reaction is observed

secure attachment (AINSWORTH)

(ainsworth’s 4 types of attachment) demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when they leave, and find comfort in their return

mother is present: the child uses the mother as a secure base to explore the environment and interact with strangers

mother leaves: the child is visible upset

mother returns: the child calms down shortly after the mother returns

later in life: Autonomous - good image of self and others, comfortable, seek support (healthy mental)

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question “who am i?”

rouge test (self-recognition test)

a measure of self-concept; the child who can touch a mark on their face in the mirror pass

recognizing one’s self in the mirror

authoritarian (BAUMRIND)

(parenting style) parents are coercive, they impose rules and expect obedience

*associations → less social skills, less self-esteem, overreaction when makes mistake

**correlation ≠ causation

permissive indulgent (BAUMRIND)

(parenting style) parents are unrestraining; they make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

*associations → children who are more aggressive and immature

**correlation ≠ causation

authoritative (BAUMRIND)

(parenting style) parents are confrontive; they are both demanding and responsive; they exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

*associations → high self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence

**correlation ≠ causation

permissive neglectful (BAUMRIND)

(parenting style) parents are uninvolved; neither demanding nor responsive; are careless, inattentive, and don’t seek to have a close relationship with their children

*association → children with poor academic and social outcomes

**correlation ≠ causation

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

enriched environment

(rosenzweig rat study) the cage that contained other rats and play toys - lead to more developed brains

impoverished environment

(rosenzweig rat study) the cage that did not contain other rates and toys - the rat did not develop as many brain cells

imaginary audience (ELKIND)

a cognitive distortion experiences by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always “on stage” with an audience watching

personal fable (ELKIND)

common belief among adolescents that their feelings and experiences cannot possibly be understood by others and that they are personally invulerable to harm

preconventional

(kohlberg’s stages of moral development) children think about moral questions in terms of external authority; acts are wrong because they are punished or right because they are rewarded

stage 1 - obedience and punishment

stage 2 - individualism and exchange

conventional

(kohlberg’s stages of moral development) children see rules as necessary for maintaining social order; they internalize them to be considered virtuous and to win approval from authority figures

stage 3 - developing good interpersonal relationships

stage 4 - maintaining social order

postconventional

(kohlberg’s stages of moral development) the highest level of moral development, in which moral actions are judges on the basis of personal codes of ethics that are general and abstract and that may not agree with societal norms

stage 5 - social contract and individual rights

stage 6 - universal principles

haidt’s social intuitionalist account

thesis that, more often than not, moral decisions are made as a result of instinctive, emotional responses rather than conscious thought

identity (ERIKSON)

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

continuity vs stages

how some parts of development are gradual and others change abruptly

stability vs change

how some traits persist through life while others change as we age

age of viability

age at which a baby can survive pre-mature birth; about 22-26 weeks

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

brain development during childhood

the developing cortex overproduces neurons, as a result, the child is left with the most neurons it will ever have in its lifetime (although not many connections)

from 3-6, the most rapid development occurs in the frontal lobe

at 1 the cerebellum rapidly develops (motor)

autism (autism spectrum disorder, ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

sociocultural theory (VYGOTSKY)

the theory that suggests a person’s cognitive development is largely influenced by their surrounding culture

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

imprinting (LORENZ)

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity (influenced by both nature and nurture)

three types: easygoing/easy, slow-to-warm, active/difficult

deprivation of attachment

causes lower intelligence, more anxious, reduced brain development, higher rate of ADHD

basic trust (ERIKSON)

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

aggression (relation aggression)

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females

gender identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two

gender schema

the theory that children learn from their culture, a concept of what it means to be male and female, and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from their associated birth-designated sex

selection effect

when individuals (teens) seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests and then eventually form groups

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am i?” that comes from our group members

intimacy (ERIKSON)

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, + external genetalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

menarche

the first mentstrual period

spermarche

the first ejaculation

sexual orientation

our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual) or the other sex (heterosexual); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual)

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

5 stages of death (KUBLER-ROSS)

insecure attachment - avoidant (AINSWORTH)

(ainsworth’s 4 types of attachment)

mother is present: the child seeks little contact with the mother and is less likely to explore the environment

mother leaves: the child shows little emotion

mother returns: the child avoids or ignores the mother

later in life: dismissing - keeps distance from others, positive self image, negative image of others

insecure attachment - anxious (AINSWORTH)

(ainsworth’s 4 types of attachment)

mother is present: the child is unsure of whether to explore when the mother is present

mother leaves: the child is upset when the mother leaves

mother returns: the child seems angry towards the mother when she returns and resists being comforted

later in life: preoccupied - fear of rejection, negative self image, positive image of others

insecure attachment - disorganized (AINSWORTH)

(ainsworth’s 4 types of attachment)

mother is present: the child is inconsistent about exploring the environment and demonstrates confused or contradictory behaviors

mother leaves: the child does not show consistent behavior

mother returns: the child does not show consistent behavior when the mother returns and is generally anxious and confused

later in life: unresolved - confused, disorganized, negative image of self and others

gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

adolescent egocentrism (ELKIND)

a characteristic of adolescents thinking that sometimes lead young people to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others and to believe, for example, that their thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique; excessive self-consciousness

trust vs mistrust (hope)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: infant (0-1.5 yrs)

person/event: mother, feeding

explanation: developing a sense that the world is supportive and safe

resolution of crisis: infants who are nurtured and loved develop a sense of security and basic optimism about others; infants whose needs are not met reliably will be suspicious of others, timid, and withdrawn

autonomy vs shame (will)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: toddler (1-3 yrs)

person/event: parents, toilet training, independence

explanation: developing a sense of control and responsibility by caring for oneself

resolution of crisis: toddlers provided with opportunities to demonstrate control over their world develop a sense of independence and become self-assured, parents should encourage autonomy by promoting opportunities for toddlers to explore their surroundings within safe boundaries; toddlers who fail to have success or are restricted by overprotective parents doubt their abilities, experience feelings of humiliation, and act impulsively

initiative vs guilt (purpose)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: preschool (4-6 yrs)

person/event: family, exploration, locomotor skills

explanation: developing a sense that one is capable of purposeful behavior

resolution of crisis: preschool children who are exposed to a larger social world and engage in planning activities and fantasy play feel capable, if the child is supported in his or her attempts to initiate activities they develop confidence in their ability to make decisions; preschool children who are criticized or prevented by overprotective parents from attempting to take responsibility develop a sense of anxiousness and fear

industry vs inferiority (competence/self-esteem)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: elementary school (7-12 yrs)

person/event: neighborhood/school, social and intellectual development

explanation: developing critical social and academic skills

resolution of crisis: school age children who master the knowledge and social skills required for success develop a sense of themselves as competent which results in high self-esteem; school age children who have problems learning or mastering social skills may develop a sense of inadequacy and disappointment which results in low self-esteem

identity vs role confusion (identity diffusion, sense of self)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: adolescence (13-19 yrs)

person/event: peer groups, role models, social relationships

explanation: achieving a sense of self and making a successful transition to adulthood

resolution of crisis: adolescents who are able to determine who they are and their individual strengths and weaknesses develop a strong sense of self, determining a strong identity provides a solid bases for future development; adolescents who are unable to develop a personal identity develop a weak sense of self and are confused about how they fit into the world

intimacy vs isolation (love)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: young adulthood (20-40 yrs)

person/event: partners, friends, long-term love, relationships

explanation: developing relationships based on love and friendship

resolution of crisis: young adults who develop strong, healthy relationships that are open and warm resolve this crisis successfully; young adults who are unable to establish close, loving relationships by opening up to others experience loneliness

generativity vs stagnation (care)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: middle adulthood (40-60 yrs)

person/event: household, workmates, work and parenthood

explanation: finding fulfillment and providing guidance for future generations

resolution of crisis: middle aged adults who take an active role in society through their family or career establish feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, individuals who successfully resolve this crisis direct their attention toward assisting the next generation; middle aged adults who do not develop an investment or connection to the world and are self-absorbed experience frustration and depression because they have not made a difference for future generations

integrity vs despair (wisdom)

(erikson’s 8 stages of psychological development)

age: late adulthood (60+ yrs)

person/event: mankind, reflection of life

explanation: reflection and evaluation on whether or not life was meaningful and avoiding regrets

resolution of crisis: late adult individuals who reflect back upon their life experiences and evaluate them favorably believe that life was successful and meaningful; late adult individuals who look back at their life experiences and are dissatisfied because of regrets and missed opportunities experience anger or depression because they believe that their life was meaningless, wasted, or unsuccessful

diffusion

(marcia’s 4 identity statuses) the adolescent has not committed to an identity and is not exploring possible identities

forclosure

(marcia’s 4 identity statuses) the adolescent has committed to an identity and is no longer exploring possible identities, often and identity provided by a family member or significant other is blindly accepted

moratorium

(marcia’s 4 identity statuses) the adolescent has not committed to an identity but is actively exploring possible identities

achievement

(marcia’s 4 identity statuses) the adolescent has committed to an identity and continues to explore to refine their identity; correlated with the positive benefits of high self-esteem, achievement motivation, and emotional stability

jean piaget

psychologist known for his stages of cognitive development:

sensorimotor → preoperational → concrete operational → formal operational

lev vygotsky

psychologist best known for his sociocultural theory; he believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children’s learning - a continuous process that is profoundly influenced by culture

harry harlow

psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys

development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort

baby monkeys - stay up for 18 hrs a day - spent 17 hrs w cloth and 1hr with wire/feeding mom

takeaway → contact comfort is much more importance than anticipated

konrad lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Mary ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

erik erikson

created the psychosocial theory, which looks at the development or personality throughout the lifespan

psychosocial development: basic trust → autonomy → initiative → competence → identity → intimacy → generativity → integrity

diana baumrind

her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian)