Exam #2

Distinguish between what is meant by “nature” and “nurture” in developmental debates. What kinds of factors might be examples of each?

Distinguish between what is meant by “nature” and “nurture” in developmental debates. What kinds of factors might be examples of each?

1. Nature - refers to the biological and genetic factors that influence who we are, including traits inherited from our biological parents. Examples:

   1. Genetic traits (e.g., eye color, height)

   2. Certain personality traits that may be genetically predisposed-

2. Nurture - pertains to the environmental influences that shape an individual, including cultural, social, and experiential factors. Examples:

   1. Upbringing provided by guardians

   2. Influence of peers

   3. Cultural context and experiences

How might researchers determine whether a psychological phenomenon is nature or nurture based?

1. Researchers may determine by examining the interactions between genetic traits and environmental influences. Study factors like:

   1. The similarities between biological children and their parents versus adopted children and their adoptive families

   2. The differences among siblings raised in the same household to understand how shared environment and genetics contribute to their traits.

Role of Epigenetics in Development

Plays a crucial role in understanding how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways, leading to diverse phenotypes. It examines how environmental factors and behavior change gene expression over time.

Differences Between Epigenetics and Genetics

Genetics focuses on the fixed sequences of DNA and the inherited traits, epigenetics looks beyond to how genes are turned on or off based on environmental influences. This means that even individuals with identical genetic makeup (identical twins) can exhibit significant variability in their traits and health outcomes due to different gene expression influenced by their environments. The expression (epigenetics), not alteration of DNA.

Factors Related to Changes in the Epigenome

1. Environmental Context: Experiences and surroundings that affect how genes are expressed.

2. Life Experiences: Individual life events and stressors, such as family dynamics.

3. Health Conditions: Conditions like psychological disorders (e.g., schizophrenia) can arise from interactions between genetic predispositions and environmental factors.

Explain how teratogens impact a developing fetus. Describe the impact of a few common teratogens.

1. Impact of Teratogens on a Developing Fetus: an agent that can cause abnormalities in a fetus

2. Common Teratogens:

   1. Alcohol:

      1. Leads to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD).

      2. Causes facial deformities, growth deficiencies, and cognitive impairments.

   2. Tobacco:

      1. Associated with low birth weight and preterm birth.

      2. Increases risk of behavioral problems and cognitive impairments.

   3. Certain Medications:

      1. Isotretinoin: Causes severe birth defects, affecting the heart and nervous system.

   4. Infections:

      1. Rubella and CMV: Can result in hearing loss, vision problems, and developmental delays.

Discuss the role of plasticity and its relationship to critical periods, pruning, and resilience?

The role of plasticity is the nervous system's ability to change. During critical periods, windows during development when the brain is particularly receptive to certain types of experiences or learning the plasticity increases for rapid changes and connections. During pruning when the brain gets rid of excess / unused connections and strengthens frequency used connections. During resilience, the ability to adapt and bounce back from challenges or trauma, plasticity allows the brain to reorganize and form new connections.

Describe schemas (schemata) and how they impact our information processing. Distinguish between assimilation and accommodation and give an example of each.

Are the framework that help us interpret or organize info. Assimilation is adding to existing schemas causing it to grow. Accommodation is the adjusting of schemas for new info and becoming more accurate.

Discuss the key characteristics of children in the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. What is the major milestone of this stage and when does it typically occur?

The first phase of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It occurs from birth to two years of age. The key characteristics are exploration through sensenses, object permanence, goal-directed behavior, symbolic thinking, imitation. The major milestone is object permanence.

Describe the key characteristics of children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development. Be sure to include the implications of the concept of conservation and egocentrism. What is theory of mind and how does this impact the social relations of young children?

The preoperational stage is the second phase of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It occurs from ages 2 to 7. The key characteristics are symbolic function (Children begin to use symbols (e.g., words, images) to represent objects and experiences), egocentrism (difficulty seeing things from perspectives other than their own), lack of conservation (the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement) and intuitive thinking (relying on intuition rather than logical reasoning). Theory of the mind ability to understand that others have their own thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives that may differ from one's own. With improving it there is empathy development, improved communication, conflict resolution and friendship formation. But if not improvement the social relations in young children will cause social exclusion, misinterpretation,lack of  awareness of social norms and competition and jealousy.

Describe the new cognitive skills and age ranges associated with the concrete operational of cognitive development.

The third phase of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It occurs between 7 to 11 years old. The new cognitive skills are conservation, logical thinking, classification, seriation (understanding the concept of order and sequence) and reversibility.

Describe the new cognitive skills and age ranges associated with the formal operational of cognitive development.

The fourth stage of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It occurs from 11 years old and into adulthood. The new cognitive skills are abstract thinking, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, logical operations, metacognition (awareness of one’s own thinking processes, ex: better self regulation) and moral reasoning.

Describe stranger anxiety and hypothesize about how this might have evolutionary roots.

Stranger anxiety is a common developmental phenomenon observed in infants. It is distress or fear when an infant encounters unfamiliar people. It can be shown as crying, clinging to caregivers, or turning away from the stranger. This might have evolutionary roots as a survival mechanism (increased their chances of survival by minimizing exposure to potential threats), attachment to caregivers (enhances the likelihood of receiving care and protection), and social learning (observing their caregivers' reactions to unfamiliar individuals, they learn to gauge social cues).

Describe the three different attachment styles discussed in class. How did children with each style react to the strange situation experiment?

1. Secure Attachment (Healthy): The children would avoid the stranger and were upset by their caregivers departure.

2.  Insecure Anxious Attachment: The children would avoid the stranger and resist comfort upon caregivers return despite wanting it.

3. Insecure Anxious Attachment: The children were indifferent but anxious to the caregivers absence, were okay with the stranger and would ignore the caregivers return.

Discuss what studies conducted by the Harlows’ deepened our understanding of attachment styles.

1. Wire Mother vs. Cloth Mother Experiment: Harlow placed infant monkeys in a cage with two surrogate mothers: one made of wire that provided milk and another covered in soft cloth that offered no nourishment.The infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, spending most of their time clinging to it for comfort. This demonstrated that attachment is not solely based on the provision of food but on the emotional security and comfort provided by the caregiver.

2. Comfort in Fearful Situations: Harlow introduced a fearful stimulus, such as a mechanical teddy bear, to see how the infant monkeys reacted. The infants sought comfort from the cloth mother before exploring the unfamiliar object. This behavior illustrated the concept of a "secure base," emphasizing the importance of a caregiver’s emotional support for exploration and coping with stress.

3. Social Development: Harlow observed the social interactions of monkeys raised with a cloth mother versus those raised without any maternal contact. Monkeys raised without maternal contact exhibited severe social deficits and abnormal behaviors. This finding highlighted the long-term impact of attachment on social development and underscored the critical role of early emotional bonds in forming healthy relationships.

Discuss the cognitive development of the adolescent brain, being sure to address pruning, prefrontal cortex (and increased myelination), and the limbic system. How does this relate to risk-taking? 

Cognitive development of the adolescent brain involves significant changes in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. The prefrontal cortex development undergoes significant growth, leading to better decision-making, impulse control, and reasoning. The increased myelination in the prefrontal cortex causes faster communication between neurons resulting in better planning and executive function. Pruning allows more efficient processing and cognitive flexibility. The limbic system governs emotions and reward processes and mature way earlier than the prefrontal cortex. This can result in heightened emotional responses and an increased sensitivity to rewards. So while the prefrontal cortex is growing and the limbic system is pruning it can contribute to risk-taking. The limbic system is more active and wanting rewards and the developing prefrontal cortex can have a hard time reining in the impulses for the reward.

Explain cognitive development through adulthood. Differentiate between crystalized and fluid intelligence and describe the characteristics of memory decline. 

1. Cognitive development in early and middle adulthood remains stable. Crystalized intelligence remains steady or improves.

2. Cognitive development in late adulthood declines. Fluid intelligence declines.

3. Crystallized Intelligence: Comprises knowledge and skills gained over a lifetime, often remaining stable or improving with age.

4. Fluid Intelligence: Involves the ability to think abstractly, reason, and solve new problems. This type of intelligence tends to decline with age, particularly in late adulthood.

5. Memory Decline characteristics: Slower information processing, increased errors in quick responses or complex reasoning, difficulty in everyday tasks.

Describe how the characteristics of light waves (wavelength, amplitude) affect our visual sensation

The characteristics of light waves, wavelength, the frequency, that has the color, second, the amplitude, the intensity of brightness and third the color of object, its reflected (not absorbed).

What does it mean that an object is a certain color (in terms of reflection and absorption of light waves)?

When we say an object is a certain color, it reflects specific wavelengths of light while absorbing others. 

• Example: a green object reflects wavelengths associated with green and absorbs other wavelengths, such as red and blue.

What is A?

1. Cornea

   1. Role: The cornea is the transparent covering of the eye that serves as the first barrier for light entering. 

   2. Key Characteristics: It helps focus light waves as they enter the eye, bending the light to begin the focusing process.

What is B?

1. Pupil:

   1. Role: The pupil is the small opening through which light passes after the cornea. 

   2. Key Characteristics: Its size can change in response to light levels and emotional arousal. It dilates in low light to allow more light in and constricts in bright light to reduce light entry.

What is C?

Iris

What is D?

1. Lens:

   1. Role: The lens is a curved, transparent structure that provides additional focusing. 

   2. Key Characteristics: It is attached to muscles that can change its shape to focus light from near or far objects onto the retina.

What is E?

1. Retina:

   1. Role: The retina is the light-sensitive lining of the eye where light is converted into neural signals. 

   2. Key Characteristics: It contains both cones (for color and detail in bright light) and rods (for low-light and peripheral vision).

What is F?

1. Fovea:

   1. Role: The fovea is a small indentation at the back of the eye where images are focused. 

   2. Key Characteristics: It contains densely packed cones, which are specialized photoreceptors that detect light and are crucial for detailed and color vision.

What is G?

1. Optic Nerve:

   1. Role: The optic nerve carries visual information from the retina to the brain. 

   2. Key Characteristics: It is formed by the axons of retinal ganglion cells and exits the eye at the back.

Reflect on the chronological process of your eye’s encountering a reflected source of light.

As light from a reflected source enters the eye, it first passes through the cornea, then through the pupil. The lens focuses the light onto the fovea in the retina, where the cones and rods detect the light and convert it into neural signals, which are sent to the brain via the optic nerve for processing.

Discuss what accommodation means for sensation and perception (hints: it’s about the lens)

Accommodation is the process by which the eye's lens adjusts its shape to focus on objects at varying distances, ensuring that light is correctly refracted onto the retina. This adjustment is vital for clear sensation and accurate perception of our surroundings. Without proper accommodation, our ability to interpret visual information can be impaired.

Distinguish between rods and cones. Discuss where they are located, what type of vision they are particularly useful for. 

1. Rods and cones are two types of photoreceptor cells located in the retina of the eye, each serving different functions:

   1. Rods:

      1. Location: Throughout the retina, except for the fovea.

      2. Type of Vision: Low-light, black & white sight, peripheral vision, sensitive to movement and light changes.

   2. Cones:

      1. Location: Concentrated in the fovea.

      2. Type of Vision: Bright-light, detailed vision, color.

2. In summary, rods excel in dim light and peripheral vision, while cones are specialized for bright light, detail, and color vision.

Distinguish between the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory in our sense and perception of color. What phenomenon are associated with each?

1. The trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory describe different aspects of how we perceive

2. Associated Phenomenon: It explains how all colors in the spectrum can be created by combining these three primary colors. 

• Opponent-Process Theory:

  1. Description: Color perception is organized into opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and green-red. Some cells are excited by one color and inhibited by its opponent. 

  2. Associated Phenomenon: This theory accounts for negative afterimages, where staring at a color can lead to seeing its opposite color when the stimulus is removed.

• In summary, the trichromatic theory explains color mixing through cone activation, while the opponent-process theory accounts for color pairing and afterimages.

Describe depth perception

Refers to our ability to perceive spatial relationships in three-dimensional (3-D) space, allowing us to determine the position of objects in relation to one another (front, behind, etc.)

Distinguish between binocular cues (makes sure to discuss convergence and retinal disparity) and monocular cues? 

1. Binocular Cues:

   1. Description: Binocular cues require the use of both eyes to perceive depth.

   2. Key Characteristics:

      1. Binocular Disparity: This is the slightly different view each eye receives of the world. For example, when focusing on an extended finger, closing one eye will shift its position in your view.

      2. Convergence: This refers to the inward angle at which the eyes must turn to focus on an object. The closer the object, the more the eyes converge. This muscle adjustment helps the brain gauge distance.

2. Monocular Cues:

   1. Description: Monocular cues can be perceived with just one eye and are useful for interpreting depth in two-dimensional images.

   2. Key Characteristics:

      1. Examples include linear perspective (where parallel lines appear to converge), interposition (the partial overlap of objects), and relative size (where closer objects appear larger than those further away).

2. In summary, binocular cues involve both eyes and provide detailed depth perception through retinal disparity and convergence, while monocular cues rely on single-eye perspectives and various visual tricks to infer depth.

Describe what circadian rhythms are, where they are regulated in the brain and some factors that impact them

1. Circadian rhythms are internal biological rhythms that occur approximately every 24 hours, regulating various physiological processes. These rhythms are influenced by external environmental cues, primarily light and darkness.

2. Circadian rhythms are regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a small cluster of neurons located in the hypothalamus. The SCN acts as the master biological clock, synchronizing our internal rhythms with the external environment.

3. Several factors can impact circadian rhythms:

   1. Light Exposure: Light-sensitive neurons in the retina send signals to the SCN based on light levels, helping to adjust the biological clock to align with the day-night cycle.

   2. Hormonal Regulation: Melatonin, a hormone released by the pineal gland, plays a key role in regulating sleep-wake cycles. Its production is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.

   3. Lifestyle Factors: Sleep patterns, work schedules (e.g., rotating shift work), and social activities can disrupt circadian rhythms, leading to misalignment with external cues.

How does our brain’s master biological clock respond to changes in our environment?

Responds to changes in the environment, such as light exposure, by adjusting the timing of biological rhythms. For example, exposure to bright light in the evening can delay the release of melatonin, pushing back the sleep-wake cycle, while exposure to light in the morning helps reset the clock, promoting alertness and wakefulness.

Define sleep

Sleep is a state of reduced consciousness characterized by decreased sensory awareness and diminished voluntary muscle activity. Sleep is divided into two main types: Non-REM (NREM) sleep and REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, each consisting of several stages.

Describe the different stages of sleep. Be sure to discuss the key characteristics of each stage including brain wave activity.

1. NREM Stage 1: Alpha

   1. Characteristics: This is a light sleep stage, where you drift in and out of sleep. You can be easily awakened. Hypnagogic hallucinations and myoclonic jerks.

   2. Brain Wave Activity: Alpha waves transition to theta waves. Brain activity begins to slow down.

2. NREM Stage 2: Theta

   1. Characteristics: Longest stage (45-55%). Heart rate slows, and body temperature drops. You become less aware of your surroundings.Consolidates simple memories and processes simple learning.

   2. Brain Wave Activity: Sleep spindles and K-complexes appear. Theta waves dominate, indicating a deeper level of sleep.

3. NREM Stage 3: Delta

   1. Characteristics: Also known as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep, this stage is crucial for physical recovery and growth. It’s harder to awaken someone in this stage. Sleepwalking, bed wetting.

   2. Brain Wave Activity: Delta waves are predominant, signifying deep, restorative sleep. This stage is important for hormone release and immune function.

4. REM Sleep:

   1. Characteristics: This stage is characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming. The body experiences atonia, a temporary paralysis of most muscles, to prevent acting out dreams.

   2. Brain Wave Activity: Brain waves resemble those of wakefulness, with beta waves being prominent. This stage plays a vital role in complex learning and memory, emotion processing and regulation.

Summarize key trends in how sleep cycles progress throughout the night (what stages happen more in the beginning or end of the night, etc.).

1. Early Night:

   1. More NREM Sleep: The initial part of the night is dominated by NREM sleep, particularly stages 3 (deep sleep). This is when the body undergoes significant restorative processes.

   2. Shorter REM Periods: REM sleep occurs, but its duration is shorter at the beginning of the night.

2. Late Night:

   1. More REM Sleep: As the night progresses, REM sleep periods lengthen, often occurring more frequently in the latter half of the night. 

   2. Reduced Deep Sleep: Deep sleep (NREM Stage 3) decreases in duration, while REM sleep becomes more prominent.

Describe some ways sleep cycles differ between young and older adults. 

1. Sleep Duration:

   1. Younger Adults: Typically require 7-9 hours of sleep and tend to sleep deeply, experiencing more restorative NREM sleep.

   2. Older Adults: Often require less sleep (around 7-8 hours), but may have more fragmented sleep patterns.

2. Stage Distribution:

   1. Younger Adults: Experience longer periods of deep sleep (NREM Stage 3) and REM sleep, with fewer awakenings.

   2. Older Adults: Tend to have reduced deep sleep and REM sleep, often spending more time in lighter sleep stages (NREM Stage 1 and 2) and waking up more frequently throughout the night.

3. Sleep Quality:

   1. Younger Adults: Generally experience more continuous and restorative sleep.

   2. Older Adults: Often report poorer sleep quality, increased sleep disturbances, and difficulty falling or staying asleep, which can impact overall health and well-being.

Explain the concept of sleep debt

(How much sleep you need) - (How much sleep you get) = Sleep debt

The four big reasons psychologists hypothesize that we sleep

1. Restoration

2. Memory Consolidation

3. Cognitive Function

4. Emotional Regulation

The major effects of sleep loss

1. Memory Impairment: Sleep deprivation can hinder the brain's ability to form and retain memories.

2. Mood Disturbances: Insufficient sleep is linked to negative mood states.

3. Metabolism Disruption: Sleep loss can affect metabolism and appetite regulation, potentially leading to weight gain and increased risk of obesity. Hormones that regulate hunger, such as ghrelin and leptin, are disrupted with insufficient sleep.

4. Reduced Reaction Time: Lack of sleep can significantly impair reaction times and coordination, increasing the risk of accidents, especially in activities like driving or operating machinery.

5. Physical Well-Being: Overall physical health can deteriorate due to the compounding effects of sleep loss.

Describe some of the natural sleep aids

1. Light Exposure

2. Consistent Sleep Schedule

3. Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques

4. Environment

Symptoms / effects of insomnia

1. Symptoms: Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early. People with insomnia often experience daytime fatigue, irritability, and difficulty concentrating.

2. Effects: Chronic insomnia can lead to significant impairments in cognitive function, mood disturbances, and increased risk of anxiety and depression. It can also affect overall physical health and increase susceptibility to various health issues.

Symptoms / effects of narcolepsy

1. Symptoms: Excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden sleep attacks, and cataplexy (a sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions). People may also experience hallucinations and sleep paralysis.

2. Effects: Narcolepsy can severely disrupt daily life, impacting work, social interactions, and overall quality of life. The unpredictability of sudden sleep attacks can pose safety risks, particularly when driving or operating machinery.

Symptoms / effects of sleep apnea

1. Symptoms: Repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, often accompanied by loud snoring. Individuals may wake up gasping for air or feeling as if they haven't slept well.

2. Effects: Sleep apnea can lead to significant daytime fatigue, cardiovascular problems, and increased risk of hypertension, diabetes, and stroke. It can also affect mood and cognitive function due to poor sleep quality.

Symptoms / effects of sleepwalking (somnambulism)

1. Symptoms: Engaging in complex behaviors while still asleep, such as walking around, performing tasks, or even leaving the house, often with no memory of the event afterward.

2. Effects: Sleepwalking can pose safety risks, both to the individual and to others. It may also disrupt the sleep cycle, leading to tiredness and confusion upon waking.

Symptoms / effects of sleep talking

1. Symptoms: Talking during sleep, which can range from simple sounds to complex conversations. It often occurs during NREM sleep and is generally harmless.

2. Effects: Sleep talking itself does not typically have serious consequences, but it can disturb sleep for others in the same room. In some cases, it may indicate underlying sleep disorders.

Symptoms / effects of night terrors

1. Symptoms: Sudden episodes of intense fear or panic during sleep, often accompanied by screaming, thrashing, or sweating. Unlike nightmares, individuals typically do not remember the episode upon waking.

2. Effects: Night terrors can lead to sleep disruptions and anxiety about going to sleep, particularly in children. They may also cause distress for parents or others in the vicinity.

Differentiate between sensation and perception. Consider whether they are a simultaneous process and defend your response with examples. 

1. Sensation -  refers to the initial detection of stimuli by sensory receptors. It is a physiological process where specialized neurons respond to specific types of stimuli, such as light, sound, or temperature. For example, when light enters the eye, it triggers chemical changes in retinal cells, leading to the creation of action potentials that convey this sensory information to the brain. This process is primarily about the raw data our senses collect from the environment.

2. Perception is the psychological process that involves organizing, interpreting, and consciously experiencing sensory information. It is how we make sense of the sensations we detect. For instance, upon smelling freshly baked cookies, the sensation of the scent activates olfactory receptors, but perception allows us to associate that smell with pleasant memories of home and family gatherings.

3. While sensation and perception can occur almost simultaneously, they are not the same process. Sensation is the initial response to stimuli, whereas perception is the interpretation of those stimuli based on prior experiences, knowledge, and context. For example, when entering a crowded restaurant, you may initially sense a cacophony of sounds (sensation), but you selectively focus on your friend's voice amidst the noise (perception). This distinction is also evident in phenomena like sensory adaptation. For example, when you first enter a brightly lit room after being in the dark, the light sensation is intense, but after a short while, you may no longer perceive the brightness as overwhelming. The initial sensation of brightness fades, demonstrating that while the sensory receptors are still active, your perception of the light changes due to adaptation.

Describe sensory adaption

Reduced sensitivity to stimuli over time.

How do researchers study sensory adaption? Consider an example from your own life.

By experimenting with participants content exposer to stimulus. An example is not really knowing what you smell like.

Distinguish between top-down and bottom-up processing and give an example of each.

Distinguishing Gender and Sex

Gender and sex are related but distinct concepts. Sex typically refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as male or female, such as reproductive anatomy and chromosomal differences. Gender refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, and expectations that society considers appropriate for men, women, and other gender identities.

Expression and Identity

Gender expression is how individuals present their gender to the outside world, like clothing and behavior. Gender identity is a personal conception of oneself as male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along the gender spectrum. While sex is often fixed at birth, gender identity can be more fluid and personal.

Differentiating Gender Identity from Sexual Orientation

Gender identity and sexual orientation are not the same. Gender identity is about who someone knows themselves to be in terms of gender (e.g., male, female, transgender, non-binary). In contrast, sexual orientation refers to the emotional, romantic, and/or erotic attraction a person feels toward others (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual). 

Describe what it means that someone is transgender

Being transgender means that an individual's gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. Example, a person assigned female at birth may identify as male.

Discuss different forms of transitioning among trans individuals and how these are not a requirement of being trans

Various forms, including social, legal, or medical aspects. Transitioning is not a requirement to identify as transgender; individuals may choose to transition in different ways or not at all.

How do perceptions of trans and intersex folks vary by culture? 

Perceptions of trans and intersex individuals vary significantly across cultures. Some societies have long recognized multiple gender identities beyond the male-female binary and may have established roles for individuals who do not conform to traditional gender norms. Other cultures may have more rigid views, leading to stigmatization or discrimination against trans and intersex people. Cultural context greatly influences how individuals experience their identities and the acceptance they receive.

Describe the two primary sex hormones and the role they play in sexual development.

1. Testosterone is typically associated with male sexual development and is produced in larger amounts in males. Its role is in the development of male reproductive tissues, like the testes and prostate, and promotes secondary sexual characteristics, like increased muscle, bone mass, and the growth of body hair.

2. Estrogen is primarily linked to female sexual development. It is involved in the development of female reproductive tissues, the ovaries and uterus, and is responsible for secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.

3. Both hormones are essential for sexual motivation and behavior, influencing various physiological and psychological aspects of sexual development in both males and females.

Define psychoactive drug

A substance that alters brain function, resulting in changes in mood, perception, consciousness, or behavior. Examples include stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opioids.

Define substance use disorder

A medical condition characterized by a compulsive pattern of substance use despite significant adverse consequences. Individuals with this disorder often consume more of the substance than intended and may experience both physical and psychological dependence on the substance.

The key characteristics of tolerance and withdrawal.

1. Tolerance: refers to the body's adaptation to a drug, leading to a diminished response over time. As tolerance develops, an individual requires increasingly larger doses of the substance to achieve effects that were once felt at lower doses. This escalating need can lead to dangerous levels of use, potentially resulting in overdose and other health risks.

2. Withdrawal: a range of negative symptoms that occur when a person discontinues or reduces the use of a substance they are dependent on. These symptoms are often opposite to the effects of the drug. For instance, withdrawal from sedatives can cause agitation and anxiety. While withdrawal can be uncomfortable and, in some cases, life-threatening (particularly with substances like alcohol and barbiturates), it serves as a key indicator of physical dependence.

Describe the importance of dopamine in drug use and addiction.

1. Dopamine plays a key role in the brain's reward system and is significant in drug use and addiction:

   1. Reward Mechanism: Drugs increase dopamine levels, creating pleasure and reinforcing drug-seeking behavior.

   2. Reinforcement: Dopamine release leads to positive associations with drug use, fostering a cycle of repeated use.

   3. Addiction Development: Repeated use alters brain chemistry, reducing natural dopamine production and increasing the need for higher doses.

   4. Withdrawal Symptoms: Stopping drugs lowers dopamine, causing withdrawal symptoms like depression and cravings, making it hard to quit.

   5. Impact on Decision-Making: Chronic use impairs decision-making, prioritizing immediate rewards and leading to compulsive behaviors.

Discuss cannabis including some of the short- and long-term effects and medicinal uses.

1. Cannabis Overview

   1. Cannabis, often referred to as marijuana, is classified as a hallucinogen. It can produce a range of psychoactive effects due to its interaction with the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly the endocannabinoid system. 

2. Short-Term Effects

   1. Altered Perception: Users may experience changes in sensory perception, such as heightened visual or auditory sensitivity.

   2. Euphoria: Many individuals report feelings of relaxation and mild euphoria.

   3. Increased Heart Rate: Cannabis can lead to elevated heart rate and blood pressure.

   4. Anxiety or Paranoia: Some users may experience increased anxiety or paranoid thoughts, particularly at high doses.

   5. Impaired Memory and Coordination: Short-term use can impair short-term memory and motor skills, affecting tasks like driving.

3. Long-Term Effects

   1. Cognitive Impairment: Chronic use, especially when started in adolescence, may result in lasting cognitive deficits, including memory and learning difficulties.

   2. Respiratory Issues: Smoking cannabis can lead to respiratory problems similar to those caused by tobacco smoking, such as chronic bronchitis.

   3. Dependency: Some users may develop a psychological dependence on cannabis, experiencing cravings and withdrawal symptoms when not using it.

4. Medicinal Uses

   1. Pain Relief: Cannabis is often used to alleviate chronic pain, particularly in conditions like arthritis and neuropathy.

   2. Nausea and Vomiting: It is effective in reducing nausea and vomiting, particularly in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.

   3. Appetite Stimulation: Cannabis can stimulate appetite in patients suffering from conditions like HIV/AIDS or cancer.

   4. Anxiety and Stress Relief: Some patients use cannabis to manage symptoms of anxiety and stress, although responses can vary significantly among individuals.

Describe common opioids and the opioid crisis. What role did the pharmaceutical industry play?

1. Common Opioids: Opioids are a class of drugs that include both natural and synthetic substances used primarily for their analgesic (pain-relieving) properties. 

   1. Heroin: An illicit drug that produces intense euphoria and is typically injected, snorted, or smoked.

   2. Morphine: A potent pain reliever often used in medical settings.

   3. Methadone: A synthetic opioid used to treat pain and to manage withdrawal symptoms in people recovering from heroin or other opioid addiction.

   4. Codeine: A less potent opioid often prescribed for mild pain and found in some cough syrups.

   5. Prescription Pain Relievers: This category includes hydrocodone and oxycodone, which are frequently prescribed for pain management but have a significant potential for misuse.

2. The Opioid Crisis: is the widespread misuse of both prescription and non-prescription opioids, leading to a dramatic increase in addiction, overdoses, and deaths. This crisis has affected many communities across the United States and beyond, with rising rates of opioid-related fatalities. 

3. Role of the Pharmaceutical Industry

   1. Aggressive Marketing: Pharmaceutical companies aggressively marketed opioids as safe and effective treatments for chronic pain, often downplaying the risks of addiction and dependency.

   2. Misleading Information: Many companies provided misleading information about the addictive potential of opioids, which contributed to their widespread prescription by healthcare providers.

   3. Encouraging Overprescription: The industry incentivized healthcare professionals to prescribe opioids more liberally, leading to increased availability and misuse.

   4. Failure to Monitor: There was insufficient oversight and monitoring of opioid prescriptions, which allowed for widespread access and misuse among patients.

Discuss the effects of alcohol. How does drinking affect the brain dopamine, GABA, and glutamate levels and what effect does this have on the brain? How does alcohol impact certain brain regions like the cerebral cortex (frontal lobe), the cerebellum, the medulla, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland? 

1. Effect on neurotransmitters:

   1. Dopamine: Increases dopamine release, leading to euphoria and reinforcing drinking behavior, which can contribute to addiction.

   2. GABA: Enhances GABA's inhibitory effects, resulting in sedation, reduced anxiety, and impaired motor function.

   3. Glutamate: Inhibits glutamate, decreasing brain activity and impairing cognitive functions like memory and learning.

2. Effects on Brain Regions

   1. Cerebral Cortex (Frontal Lobe): Impairs judgment and decision-making, leading to risky behaviors.

   2. Cerebellum: Affects coordination and balance, resulting in motor impairment.

   3. Medulla: Depresses vital functions like breathing and heart rate, which can be dangerous at high levels.

   4. Hypothalamus: Alters hunger and thirst sensations and affects temperature regulation.

   5. Pituitary Gland: Disrupts hormone release, impacting stress responses and reproductive functions.

1. Stimulants generally enhance dopamine neurotransmission, which is linked to the brain's reward pathways. This increase in dopamine activity is associated with feelings of euphoria, heightened alertness, and improved cognitive performance. However, repeated use can lead to tolerance, requiring higher doses for the same effects, and may ultimately result in negative health consequences and dependency.

2. Examples

   1. Caffeine primarily acts as an adenosine antagonist, promoting wakefulness and alertness by blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine, which induces sleep. While generally considered safe, excessive consumption can lead to anxiety, insomnia, and other health issues.

   2. Cocaine acts as a potent stimulant by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. This leads to increased levels of dopamine, which is associated with feelings of euphoria and heightened alertness. However, high doses can also cause agitation, paranoia, and hallucinations.

Identify the most used psychoactive drug in the world? Where does it come from and what are some of the good and bad effects associated with it?

1. The most used psychoactive drug in the world is caffeine.

2. It comes from nuts, seeds and leaves of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America.

3. Good Effects:

   1. Alert & focus

   2. Physical performance: Endurance & strength

   3. Mild antidepressant for mild depression and suicidality

   4. Pain relief

   5. Possess antioxidant properties, meaning to help protect the body

4. Bad Effects:

   1. Disturbs sleep

   2. Anxiety and jitters

   3. Increased heart rate and blood pressure

   4. Digestive issues: Acid reflux, IBS, etc.,

   5. Possible pregnancy concerns: Miscarriage & low birth rate

   6. Bone health

Identify the most addicted psychoactive drug in the world? Discuss some impacts of this drug physiologically and neurochemically and some of the risks associated with its use. 

1. The most addictive psychoactive drug is nicotine.

2. Physiological Impacts

   1. Addiction and increased health risks.

3. Neurochemical Impacts

   1. Interaction with Neurotransmitters: Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors in the brain, which play a role in arousal and reward mechanisms.

   2. Dopamine Release: Nicotine stimulates the release of dopamine, which is associated with feelings of pleasure and reward, reinforcing the addictive behavior.

4. Risks Associated with Use

   1. Health Consequences like cancers and Dependency psychological and physical.

Discuss where cocaine comes from and how it relates to dopamine levels in the brain. How does isolation relate to potency and what are some effects associated with its use?

1. Cocaine comes from the coca plant, native to South America. 

2. Relation to Dopamine Levels

   1. Cocaine acts as a stimulant by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. This increases the levels of dopamine, which is associated with reward and craving, leading to its potent effects.

3. Isolation and Potency

   1. Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways, with its potency varying based on the method of administration. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable form that can produce intense effects more quickly than other methods, increasing its potential for abuse.

4. Effects Associated with Use

   1. Increased Alertness, Mild Euphoria, High Doses leading to experience agitation, paranoia, and even hallucinations.

Discuss some examples of hallucinogen drugs and their general effects on the brain. How do psychedelics relate to brain derived neurotropic factor, levels of glutamate, and reduced activation of the default mode network? What are some risks of hallucinogen use?

1. Examples of Hallucinogen Drugs

   1. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, Mescaline, DMT, Ketamine, PCP

2. General Effects on the Brain

   1. Hallucinogens are known to produce profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences. Users can experience vivid visual hallucinations and altered perceptions of time and body sensations. The effects of these drugs can vary based on set (mindset) and setting (who / who your with)

3. Psychedelics and Neurobiology

   1. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF): These substances can increase levels of BDNF, which is important for neuroplasticity and the growth of new neurons.

   2. Glutamate Levels: Psychedelics may also increase levels of glutamate, a neurotransmitter involved in excitatory signaling in the brain.

   3. Reduced Activation of the Default Mode Network (DMN): Reduced thoughts about yourself and ego.

4. Risks of Hallucinogen Use

   1. Unpredictable Reactions: The variability in individual responses can lead to distressing experiences or "bad trips."

   2. Psychological Impact: Users may experience anxiety, paranoia, or lasting changes in mood and perception.

   3. Impaired judgment and risky behavior

   4. Potential for Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD): Some users may experience persistent visual distortions or flashbacks long after the drug's effects have worn off.

Discuss some of the outcomes associated with trials of psilocybin and how this relates to cluster headaches. 

Psilocybin can be found in mushrooms, like the blue from that video. Some outcomes of it are enhanced neuroplasticity (new connections), therapeutic applications (alleviation of depression, anxiety and PTSD, creating more meaning in life) and especially alleviation of cluster headaches. Cluster headaches is one of the most painful things, causing people to commit suicide to escape but with psilocybin it has show to reduce to frequency and intensity.