PNB 2264 Exam I

anatomy

study of physical structures of the body. Features that can be seen. From a chemical level to an organ system level

EX: Histology, Gross anatomy, cytology, neuroanatomy, embryology

Physiology

study of function

EX: Sensory physiology, endocrinology, neurophysiology, muscle physiology, receptor physiology

sagittal

divides body left to right

frontal

divides body front to back

transverse

divides body between head and tails

homeostasis

mechanismoftheprocessofmaintainingconstantinternal conditions for some biological parameter despite the fact that the outside environment is continuously changing

Closed system

• Outside of reference range serves as stimulus

• To maintain homeostasis, need to do something about it

• Stimulus creates a response inside > response has to

  feedback or change stimulus- needs to increase/ decrease it

Negative Feedback Loop

• maintains homeostasis, negating the stimulus

Positive Feedback Loop

Takes further away from homeostasis

• create responses that amplify stimulus

• feedback is rare

• occur during childbirth

Feed-forward mechanism

body initiates a response that has neither a negative or positive impact on the stimulus.

connectomics

explores connections between neurons in the nervous system; able to see where individual neurons are located within our body

cystic fibrosis

deposits mucus in respiratory system, thickening the membrane

sensation

response negates stimulus → detected by receptor → sent to controller to compare stimulus to set point → activating effector

closed relationship

relationship between stimulus + response (increases or decreases)

compartmentalization

body cavities have unique setpoints

intracellular fluid

fluid inside cells → cytosol

• makes up majority of fluid inside the body

extracellular fluid

outside of cells (for humans, consists of plasma + interstitual fluid

effector

moves closer to setpoint, decreasing the stimulus (negative feedback); body temp decreases bringing us back to homeostasis

examples of homeostasis (negative feedback)

ions, blood pressure, fluid, blood sugars, oxygen, and carbon dioxide breathing

tissues

collection of cells that are serving a common function inside the body; give rise to organs

tissues are defined by differences in:

• cellular composition

• extracellular makeup(matrix)

• function

four primary tissues

• epithelial

• connective

• nervous

• muscle

epithelial tissue

protects body from physical trauma or chemical pathogens

epidermis

outermost layer of your skin; can be found in intestines; allows for molecules to enter the body through digestive system

secretion

when molecules leave the cell into the extracellular fluid

absorption

when molecules enter the cell from the extracellular fluid

cellularity

ratio of cells to matrix are very high; cells are density packed

polarity

different membrane faces have different functions

attatchment

attatch to deeper layers of tissue beneath them and each other

avascularity

lacks blood supply; dead keratinized epithelial cells

regenerative capacity

rapidly dividing tissue due to damage from physical and chemical trauma.

exchange epithelia

permit the rapid exchange of materials between two compartments

transforming epithelia

permit the rapid exchange of materials between two compartments

ciliated epithelia

promote movement of extracellular particles

Kartagener’s syndrome

primary ciliary dyskinesia; disorders characterized by abnormal ciliary movements

secretory epithelia

clusters of epithelial cells organize themselves into glands

simple

single duct

compound

multiple ducts

tubular

tube like shape

alvelor gland

bulbous/mushroom shape

merocrine glands

package secretions in membrane-bound vesicles

apocrine glands

move secretions towards one membrane face, engulfing secretions and pinching off into the external environment

holocrine glands

release secretions by rupturing cells

intercellular junctions

formed from interactions between plasma membrane proteins into adjacent cells

tight junctions

used for physical barriers between compartments; limits movement of molecules through spaces between cells

food poisoning

claudin (epithelial tissue in the gut)

adherens junctions

join two cells together by connecting two proteins in their cytoskeleton

desmosomes

join two cells together through proteins called connexons

gap junctions

electro-chemical connections between two adjacent cells allowing cells to share signaling molecules + ions.

psuedostratified

multilayer tissue but actually single layer

transitional

cubodial and columnar

melanin

protecting agent

UVB

produces vitamin D + Ca2+

UVA

released out, producing melanogenesis (pheomelanin and eumelanin)

melanin

protecting agent

merocrin

produces pheomelanin and eumelanin

mesoderm

muscle, RBC, bone

ectoderm (skin + nerves)

bone, skin (epithelial), neuron

endoderm (organs)

lungs, GI tract, liver

connective tissue

most abundant tissue type; bonds other tissues to each other

general functions of connective tissue

• physical protection

• support + structure

• storage (blood, bone, adipose)

• binding of structures

• transport

• immune protection

loose connective tissue

areolar, adipose, reticular

dense connective tissue

regular, irregular, elastic

cartilage

hylaine, fibrocartilage, elastic

bone

compact and spongy

loose connective tissue

low secularity and lots of fluid in their matrix

adipose tissue

fat; storage

reticular

located in lymph nodes

dense regular

higher degree of cellularity and densely packed matrix that doesn’t have a lot of fluid

compact

harder + dense; absorbs a great deal of mechanical energy before fracture

trabecular

lattice arrangement; can be deformed without fracture

diaphysis

shaft of long bone

epiphysis

on the ends; where bone would articulate with another to form a joint

metastasis

in between E and D; transitonal area

periosteum

the outermost layer of the bone is a connective tissue wrapper

osteon

tubes (straws)

central canal

hollow center of osteon; bone highly vascular tissue

lacuna

spaces within a bone matrix

canaliculi

used by osteocytes; system of canals

collagen

cylinders in the bone, allows for flexibility

osteoprogenitors

bone stem cells found near periosteum

osteoclasts

developed from a fibroblast; breaks down bone matrix

chondroblasts

build cartilage

chondrocytes

maintain cartilage

chondroblasts

break down cartilage

hyline cartilage

strong and flexible; found in joints

fibrocartilage

strongest typ[e of cartilage; found in specific parts

elastic cartilage

most flexible; found in ear

interstitial growth

cartilage growing where it is already present

cartilage is

avascular

encochrondrial classification

making bone from cartilage

zone 1

closer to epiphysis; contains resting cartilage

zone 2

densly packed; cells going through mitosis

zone 3 and 4

chondrocytes die off

zone 5

invasion of osteoblasts

EDS

due to mutations in collagen that range in severity

fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva

injured tissues regenerate as bone

metaplasia

one tissue is replaced by another

hypertrophy

tissue grows b/c cells become longer

apoptosis

programmed cell death → bleeding