Praxis II PLT Grades 7-12 (5624)

Bandura

Social CognitiveTheory/Observational Learning Theory-people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people.

Bruner

Constructivist Theory- learning is an active process; learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current/past knowledge.

Dewey

Learning by Doing- Learning occurs through experience.

Piaget

Genetic Epistemology- Developmental Stages of Child Development:

0-2 years: "sensorimotor"- motor development

3-7 years: "preoperational"- intuitive

8-11 years: "concrete operational"- logical, but non-abstract

12-15 years: "formal operations"- abstract thinking

Vygotsky

Social Development Theory & ZPD: Social interaction=critical for cognitive development

Zone of Proximal Development: theoretical basis for scaffolding

Kohlberg

Stages of Moral Development:

Pre-conventional- based on self-centered interests

Conventional- based on conformity to local expectations

Post-Conventional- based on higher principles

Bloom

Taxonomy- a hierarchy model; way to classify thinking according to six cognitive levels of complexity

Remembering

Understanding

Applying

Analyzing

Evaluating

Creating

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought process

including monitoring and regulating one's own learning

Schema

both the category of knowledge as well as the process of acquiring that knowledge.

useful in organizing and interpreting information

As experiences happen and new information is presented, new _________ are developed and old _____________ are changed or modified.

Transfer

Information or skills related to one topic can sometimes either help or hinder the acquisition of information or skills related to another topic.

Self-Efficacy

the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

Self-Regulation

Ability to monitor and control our own behavior, emotions, or thoughts, altering them in accordance with the demands of the situation.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky's concept that refers to the range of tasks that are too difficult for an individual to master alone

can be mastered with the guidance or assistance of adults or more-skilled peers

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov; altering another's behavior (dogs and bells)

Operant Conditioning

Rewards and punishments to teach proper behavior

Cognitive Domain

a collection of educational outcomes and learning objectives that focus on a student's knowledge and abilities

requires memory, thinking, and reasoning processes

Psychomotor/Physical Domain

focus on motor skills and perceptual processes

ranges from reflexes to skilled motions

Includes the ability to communicate through motion (dancing, miming)

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Protect rights of students with disabilities by ensuring everyone receives a free appropriate public education, regardless of ability.

Section 504, Rehabilitation Act

Protect rights of those with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance, including federal funds

Thorndike

Connectionism (Behaviorism): Learners form associations or connections between a stimulus and a response.

Through trial and error, rewarded responses would be strengthened.

Watson

Behaviorism: Proposed that most human learning and behavior was controlled by experience (not genetically predetermined).

Believed the only behaviors that should be studied are the "observable" ones.

Maslow

Hierarchy of Needs: Humans naturally strive to satisfy needs.

Lower levels must be satisfied before the individual can move on to satisfy higher level needs.

Physiological

Safety

Love/Belonging

Esteem

Self-Actualization

Physiological

1st tier on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

Safety

2nd tier on Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health, and property

Love/Belonging

3rd tier on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

friendship, family, and sexual intimacy

Esteem

4th tier on Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, and respect by others

Self-Actualization

5th tier on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, and acceptance of facts

Skinner

Operant Conditioning: Learning is the result of changes in behavior.

As stimulus-response cycles are reinforced, individuals are "conditioned" to respond.

Individuals can initiate responses, not merely respond to stimuli.

Erikson

Socioemotional Development: "Eight Stages of Man;" describes series of crises individuals pass through at different ages.

Trust vs. Mistrust

1st Stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Infancy-1 year

if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt

2nd of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

1-3 years (Toddlerhood)

Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Initiative vs. Guilt

3rd of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

3-6 years (Preschool)

learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

Industry vs. Inferiority

4th of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

6 years-puberty

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Identity vs. Role Confusion

5th of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Adolescence- teen years into 20s

work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

Intimacy vs. Isolation

6th of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Young Adulthood-20's to early 40's

struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

Generativity vs. Stagnation

7th of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Middle Adulthood-40s to 60s

people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

Integrity vs. Despair

8th of Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Late Adulthood-60's and up

reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

Self-Determination

A combination of skills, knowledge and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior

includes skills such as choice/decision-making, goal setting, problem-solving, self-evaluation, self-management, self-advocacy, and self-awareness

Attribution

in their effort to make sense of their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover its underlying causes

Extrinsic Motivation

external motivational factors such as rewards and punishments

Intrinsic Motivation

internal motivational factors such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort felt at a mismatch between what you already know or believe and new information or interpretation.

Positive Reinforcement

presentation of a stimulus or event immediately after a response has been emitted

has the primary effect of increasing the occurrence of similar responses in the future

Negative Reinforcement

a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus

Information Processing Theory

individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it

Social Learning Theory (3)

Basic Concepts:

Modeling,

Reciprocal Determinism,

Vicarious Learning

Modeling

the teacher's direct and indirect demonstration, by actions and words, of the behaviors expected of students

Reciprocal Determinism

the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.

Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use of consequences

Vicarious Learning

learning that is derived from indirect sources such as hearing or observation, rather than direct, hands-on, instruction.

Constructivism (5)

Basic Concepts:

Learning as experience

Problem-based learning

Zone of Proximal Development

Scaffolding

Inquiry/discovery learning

Learning as Experience

learning by doing

Problem-Based Learning

a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem.

Students learn both thinking strategies and domain knowledge.

Scaffolding

the degree of support, guidance, and direction you provide students when they set out to complete the task

Inquiry/Discovery Learning

a constructivist based approach to education. It is supported by the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour Papert

Behaviorism (4)

Basic Concepts:

Conditioning

Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards

Reinforcement

Punishment

Intrinsic Rewards

An outcome that gives an individual personal satisfaction such as that derived from a job well done.

Extrinsic Rewards

an award that is tangible or physically given to you for accomplishing something.

It is a tangible recognition of ones endeavor.

Scope

The breadth and depth of content to be covered in a curriculum at any one time

All that you do in a given period.

Sequence

The order in which content is presented to learners over time

The order in which you do it.

Learning Domains (3)

Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)

Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

Remediation

Giving students extra instruction to help increase proficiency in a particular skill area

Enrichment

Directed to creative and critical thinking skills; student shows exceptional performance and responsibility in the classroom. Find material to still challenge students who may be gifted and talented to keep them engaged and motivated.

Instructional Planning Partners (5)

-Special Education Teachers

-Library Media Specialists

-Teachers of the Gifted and Talented

-IEP Team Members

-Para Educators

Deductive Reasoning

Top-down approach; work from more general information to more specific

Ex: Every day, I leave for work in my car at eight o'clock. Every day, the drive to work takes 45 minutes I arrive to work on time. Therefore, if I leave for work at eight o'clock today, I will be on time.

Inductive Reasoning

Bottom-up approach; work from more specific observations to broader generalizations and theories

Ex: Today, I left for work at eight o'clock and I arrived on time. Therefore, every day that I leave the house at eight o'clock, I will arrive to work on time.

Direct Instruction Strategies (5)

-Explicit teaching

-Drill and practice

-Lecture

-Demonstrations

-Guides for reading, listening, viewing

Indirect Instruction Strategies (6)

-Problem solving

-Inquiry

-Case studies

-Concept mapping

-Reading for meaning

-Cloze procedures

Independent Instruction Strategies (5)

-Learning contracts

-Research projects

-Learning centers

-Computer mediated instruction

-Distance learning

Experiential and Virtual Instruction Strategies (6)

-Field trips

-Experiments

-Simulations

-Role play

-Games

-Observations

Interactive Instruction Strategies (6)

-Brainstorming

-Cooperative learning groups

-Interviews

-Discussion

-Peer Practice

-Debates

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Modes (6)

-Body language

-Gesture

-Tone, stress, and inflection

-Eye contact

-Facial expression

-Personal space

Active Listening Strategies (6)

-Attending to the speaker

-Restating key points

-Asking questions

-Interpreting Information

-Providing supportive feedback

-Being respectful

Diagnostic Assessment

Gathering and carefully evaluating detailed data using students' knowledge and skills in a given learning area to diagnose strengths and areas of need in all students; use data to plan appropriate pedagogy and targeted learning

Assists teachers to gain...

1. understanding of current situation

2. knowledge about how to improve

3. required resources

Leads to action and improved learning outcomes

Formal Assessment

tests that systematically measure how well a student has mastered learning outcomes.

Informal Assessment

a procedure for obtaining information that can be used to make judgements about children's learning behavior and characteristics or programs using means other than standardized instruments

Formative Assessment

Evaluation of learning in progress

Summative Assessment

Assessment of learning after learning is completed

Assessment Tools (5)

-Rubrics

-Analytical checklists

-Scoring guides

-Anecdotal notes

-Continuums

Assessment Formats (6)

-Essay

-Selected response

-Portfolio

-Conference

-Observation

-Performance

Types of Standardized Tests (3)

-Achievement

-Aptitude

-Ability

Norm-referenced Scoring

Designed to compare and rank test takers in relation to one another; whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student

Criterion-referenced Scoring

Designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards

Validity

the sounds of your interpretations and uses of students' assessment results

Reliability

the amount of consistency of assessment results

a limiting factor for validity

Raw Score

the number of points you assign to a student's performance on an assessment

points may be assigned based on each task, or points awarded on separate parts of the assessment

Scaled Score

a conversion of a student's raw score on a test or a version of the test to a common scale that allows for a numerical comparison between students.

Percentile

a norm-referenced score that tells the percentage of persons in a norm group scoring lower than particular raw score

Standard Deviation

an index of the spread of the scores in a distribution calculated by taking the square root of the mean squared deviation of the scores from the arithmetic mean of the scores

Mean

an average score found by summing all of the scores and dividing by their number

AKA the arithmetic mean

Median Score Method

a procedure for combining several component grades into a composite report card grade

all scores are converted to the same scale, usually a rubric or grade scale

the median mark is used as the composite grade

Mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

Grade-Equivalent Scores

a norm-referenced growth scale score that tells the grade placement at which a raw score is average

reported as a decimal fraction

Ex 3.4- the whole number refers to a grade level and the decimal refers to a month of the school year within that grade level

Age-Equivalent Scores

a comparison of your child's performance compared to age groups whose average scores are in the same range

Holistic Scoring

Single scale

All factors are to be evaluated are identified together for each level of performance

a checklist, description of each attainable level of performance, etc.

Quicker to develop, learn, score, and find agreement among various evaluators

Analytical Scoring

Consists of multiple, separate scales, and therefore provides a set of scores rather than just one

lets students know exactly which areas to improve on

takes longer to learn well and longer to score

Reflective Practice

Continuous cycle of self-observation and self-evaluation; thinking to benefit of the individuals and communities being served; how to improve or knowing what works well

Equal Access

Prohibits public secondary schools that receive federal assistance and that maintain a limited open forum from denying equal access to students who wish to meet within the forum on the basis of the religious, political, philosophical, or other content of the speech at such meetings.

Due Process

No state shall deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law

Obedience and Punishment

Pre-conventional Stage of Kohlberg's Moral Theory

Infancy

No difference between doing the right thing and avoiding punishment