history alevel war of roses

How did Henry VI's personality affect his reign?

Henry VI was gentle, indecisive, and lacked martial prowess, which undermined his ability to maintain order and command respect, leading to a weakened monarchy.

What role did royal education play in Henry VI's early preparation for kingship?

Henry VI received the best tuition and was schooled in the arts of good governance, patronage, and military leadership, though these lessons ultimately had little effect on his ability to rule.

How did mismanagement of the war in France contribute to the Wars of the Roses?

The failure to effectively manage the war in France drained royal finances, diminished England's military prestige, and eroded the authority of the Crown, contributing to internal dissent.

What was the significance of heavy taxation during Henry VI's reign?

Heavy taxation, imposed to fund unsuccessful military campaigns and lavish patronage, exacerbated public discontent and increased resentment among both the nobility and commoners.

How did Henry VI's reliance on his advisers affect his rule?

His weak character led him to rely excessively on his advisers—often accused of corruption and mismanagement—who steered him into unwise decisions and deepened factional divisions.

Why was patronage a contentious issue during Henry VI's reign?

Patronage was contentious because the distribution of lands and offices favored a small circle of royal favourites, which bred jealousy and opposition among other nobles.

How did the loss of Normandy impact England?

The loss of Normandy resulted in a catastrophic blow to national pride, reduced income from trade and estates in France, and fueled dissatisfaction with the government's military failures.

What internal problems did Henry VI face with the nobility?

The nobility, especially those closely related to the king and his favourites, became sources of factional strife, leading to rivalries and even open rebellion as they competed for influence.

How did the problem of "evil councillors" emerge during Henry VI's reign?

As financial mismanagement and military failures mounted, critics began to accuse the king's advisers—whom they labelled "evil councillors"—of exploiting the Crown's weakness for personal gain.

What was the importance of the rivalry between the Duke of York and the Duke of Somerset?

Their rivalry symbolised the deep factional divisions at court; York resented Somerset's control over military and governmental appointments and blamed him for key losses in France.

Why did Richard, Duke of York, return from Ireland in 1450?

York returned from Ireland to clear his name from rumours of treason, to secure repayment of debts owed to him, and to challenge the dominant faction at court led by Somerset.

What role did Cade's rebellion play in the conflict?

Cade's rebellion, originating in Kent in 1450, was a serious uprising that exposed the extent of popular discontent with the government and further undermined Henry VI's authority.

How did the Battle of St Albans (1455) mark a turning point in the Wars of the Roses?

The battle was the first major armed confrontation, signifying the breakdown of royal authority and setting the stage for subsequent conflicts between Yorkist and Lancastrian factions.

What was Margaret of Anjou's contribution to the Lancastrian cause?

As Henry VI's queen, Margaret of Anjou became a determined political and military leader, mobilising support, criticising the king's weak advisers, and rallying opposition against Yorkist influence.

How did factional rivalries at court lead to Henry VI's downfall?

The intense rivalries among nobles, particularly between York and Somerset, destabilised the government, eventually leading to open warfare and the deposition of Henry VI.

What events led to the deposition of Henry VI?

A combination of military defeats, internal rebellions, and the capture of Henry VI by Yorkist forces paved the way for his deposition and the subsequent coronation of Edward IV.

How did Edward IV's first reign (1461-1470) attempt to address internal disorder?

Edward IV sought to stabilise the realm by reasserting royal authority, securing the loyalty of key nobles through strategic patronage, and reconfiguring the royal household to counter Lancastrian resistance.

What challenges did Edward IV face regarding his relationship with the nobility?

Despite military successes, Edward IV struggled with factional rivalries, dissatisfaction among former Lancastrians, and opposition from powerful families who were wary of his methods and reforms.

How did Edward IV's management of government change between his first and second reigns?

In his second reign, Edward IV restored stability by reappointing experienced officials, reducing household expenses, and reforming administrative practices, though factional rivalries continued.

What circumstances led to the temporary restoration of Henry VI in 1470-1471?

Political instability and renewed Lancastrian plotting, led by Margaret of Anjou and supported by disaffected nobles, briefly overthrew Edward IV, restoring Henry VI before Edward regained the throne.

How did Richard III come to power after Edward IV's death?

Richard III ascended the throne following the mysterious disappearance of the Princes in the Tower and the subsequent arrest and execution of key members of Edward IV's household.

What controversies surround Richard III's claim to the throne?

Richard III's claim is marred by accusations of murdering the Princes in the Tower, questionable legitimacy, and the violent means by which he removed rivals from power.

How did the execution of key figures, such as the Duke of Somerset and Lord Hastings, affect Richard III's reign?

Their executions helped Richard III consolidate power but also deepened divisions among the nobility, leading to rebellions and long-lasting resentment against his regime.

What was the Buckingham rebellion, and what did it signify?

The Buckingham rebellion was an uprising by former Yorkists who opposed Richard III's actions and his removal of the Woodvilles, signifying deep discontent among the nobility and contributing to his eventual downfall.

How did Edward IV and Richard III differ in their approach to governing the realm?

Edward IV focused on balancing noble interests and restoring stability through patronage and administrative reforms, while Richard III's rule was marked by ruthless measures, controversial executions, and a narrow support base.

What impact did the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower have on Richard III's legitimacy?

The disappearance fueled widespread suspicion and Tudor propaganda, undermining his legitimacy by suggesting he murdered his young nephews to secure the throne.

How did Henry VII secure his claim to the throne at Bosworth?

Henry VII secured his claim by defeating Richard III in battle at Bosworth Field, capitalising on Richard's unpopularity and the discontent of both nobles and commoners with his rule.

What was the significance of Henry VII's marriage to Elizabeth of York?

The marriage united the warring houses of Lancaster and York, symbolically ending the Wars of the Roses and strengthening Henry VII's claim to the throne through dynastic legitimacy.

How did Henry VII deal with remaining Yorkist claimants after his accession?

Henry VII neutralised potential rivals by imprisoning or executing key figures, using acts of attainder and financial penalties to deter opposition from Yorkist heirs and disaffected nobles.

What strategies did Henry VII use to control the nobility?

He imposed strict financial controls through bonds, recognisances, and acts of attainder, limited the creation of new peerages, and closely monitored noble marriages and alliances.

How did Henry VII's policies transform the feudal nobility into a "service nobility"?

By rewarding loyalty and service rather than birthright and by limiting the size and independence of the peerage, Henry VII shifted power from hereditary magnates to those who actively served the Crown.

What was the Act of Resumption, and why was it important for Henry VII's finances?

The Act of Resumption allowed Henry VII to reclaim lands that had been alienated from the Crown during previous reigns, thereby increasing royal revenues and strengthening the treasury.

How did Henry VII reform the practice of retaining?

He introduced licensing measures and recognisances that required nobles to register their retainers, curbing the unchecked practice of maintaining large, independent armed forces that could threaten royal authority.

What role did forced loans, bonds, and recognisances play in Henry VII's financial strategy?

These financial instruments were used to secure immediate revenue, enforce noble loyalty, and act as penalties for disloyalty, thereby stabilising royal finances and reducing the power of potential rebels.

How did Henry VII use Parliament to support his domestic policies?

Henry VII summoned Parliament sparingly to secure subsidies and pass acts that reinforced royal authority, such as those curbing illegal retaining and punishing traitors through acts of attainder.

What measures did Henry VII take to restore law and order in England?

He strengthened local government by enhancing the roles of justices of the peace and sheriffs, established regional councils like the Council of the North, and deployed royal agents to supervise local administration.

How did Henry VII's administration of justice differ from that of his predecessors?

Henry VII focused on centralising justice, increasing the efficiency of revenue collection from fines and fees, and using legal reforms to punish corruption and restore public order.

What were the main challenges Henry VII faced from regional rebellions?

Henry VII had to contend with uprisings in Yorkshire and Cornwall, which were driven by heavy taxation, economic hardship, and local discontent with royal policies.

How did Henry VII respond to the Yorkshire rebellion of 1489?

He deployed a royal army, led by the Earl of Surrey, to defeat the rebels while later issuing pardons to reintegrate local leaders and restore order.

What triggered the Cornish rebellion of 1497, and how was it resolved?

The Cornish rebellion was sparked by opposition to heavy taxation imposed to finance military campaigns against Scotland and pretenders; it was suppressed swiftly by royal forces under Lord Daubeney.

How did Henry VII's cautious use of taxation reflect his approach to governance?

By imposing taxes only when absolutely necessary and negotiating with local communities, Henry VII sought to avoid alienating his subjects while ensuring sufficient revenue for state needs.

What role did acts of attainder play in Henry VII's consolidation of power?

Acts of attainder allowed Henry VII to confiscate the estates of disloyal nobles and traitors, using legal means to weaken opposition and reinforce his authority.

How did Henry VII's policies contribute to the restoration of royal finances by the end of his reign?

His aggressive recovery of Crown lands, efficient collection of customs and feudal dues, and use of forced loans and recognisances increased annual income and left the treasury solvent.

What were the primary sources of royal revenue during Henry VII's reign?

Royal revenues came from Crown lands, customs duties, feudal dues, profits of justice, parliamentary grants, forced loans, and the French pension secured by diplomatic treaties.

How did the collection of customs duties change under Henry VII?

Henry VII reformed customs administration, increasing efficiency and raising revenues from exports like wool and cloth, which became a significant source of income.

What is the significance of the French pension in Henry VII's financial policy?

The French pension, secured through treaties such as Picquigny and later negotiations, provided a steady annual income that bolstered the royal treasury without additional taxation.

How did Henry VII address the issue of feudal dues such as wardships and marriages?

He rigorously enforced feudal dues, improving collection methods and increasing revenue from wardships, marriage fines, and relief payments upon inheritance.

What were the "profits of justice," and why were they important to Henry VII's regime?

Profits of justice were revenues derived from fines and fees imposed for criminal acts; these funds were an essential part of the Crown's income and a tool for enforcing law and order.

How did Henry VII's administration use extraordinary revenue sources?

Henry VII secured additional funds through parliamentary grants, forced loans, and benevolences, which were crucial for financing military campaigns and diplomatic ventures.

How did Henry VII's financial policies compare to those of his predecessors?

Unlike his predecessors, Henry VII implemented a more systematic and ruthless approach to revenue collection, recovering alienated lands and imposing strict financial controls on the nobility.

What impact did Henry VII's policies have on the overall stability of the Tudor state?

His financial reforms, efficient revenue collection, and centralisation of administration laid the foundations for a stable and solvent Tudor state, ensuring the survival of his dynasty.

What was Henry VII's primary aim in foreign policy?

Henry VII's main aim was to secure the realm from external threats, avoid costly wars, and gain diplomatic recognition for his dynasty through strategic alliances and treaties.

How did the weakened state of England after the Hundred Years' War affect Henry VII's foreign policy?

The aftermath of the Hundred Years' War left England with a diminished military and financial capacity, forcing Henry VII to adopt a cautious, non-interventionist foreign policy.

Why was avoiding war a major financial goal for Henry VII?

Wars were expensive and could destabilise the realm, so by avoiding conflict, Henry VII preserved royal finances, maintained domestic stability, and protected trade.

How did Henry VII seek to secure alliances with other European powers?

Henry VII negotiated treaties and marriage alliances with major powers such as Spain, France, Scotland, and Burgundy to deter external aggression and gain diplomatic legitimacy.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489) for Henry VII?

The Treaty of Medina del Campo secured a valuable marriage alliance between his son Arthur and Catherine of Aragon, improved trade relations, and strengthened England's diplomatic position with Spain.

How did the Treaty of Étaples (1492) help to stabilise Henry VII's foreign policy?

The Treaty of Étaples forced France to pay a pension to England and withdraw support for pretenders like Warbeck, thereby reducing the threat of French intervention.

What were the key terms of the Treaty of Windsor (1506)?

The Treaty of Windsor united England and Burgundy in an alliance against France, improved trade relations, and provided England with a reliable diplomatic partner in the region.

How did Henry VII address the threat posed by Scotland?

Henry VII negotiated truces with Scotland, such as the Treaties of Ayton (1497 and 1502), and secured alliances through marriage, notably with his daughter Margaret's betrothal to James IV.

What role did trade play in Henry VII's foreign policy?

Trade was central to his policy; he aimed to protect and expand the cloth trade, secure favourable customs treaties, and promote commercial agreements with key partners like Spain and Burgundy.

How did the Magnus Intercursus benefit English merchants?

The Magnus Intercursus allowed English merchants to trade freely in Burgundy's territories without paying tolls or customs, significantly boosting England's export income.

What was the Malus Intercursus, and why was it unpopular in Burgundy?

The Malus Intercursus imposed unfavourable conditions on Burgundy, limiting duties on English cloth; its terms were so advantageous to England that it provoked resentment in Burgundy.

How did Henry VII's policy toward Brittany reflect his overall foreign strategy?

Henry VII sought to secure Brittany as a buffer state against France by negotiating treaties and providing limited military support, although his efforts ultimately failed to prevent French annexation.

What was the "Auld Alliance," and how did it affect England's security?

The "Auld Alliance" was a longstanding pact between Scotland and France; it meant that England risked facing a two-front threat, as France could encourage Scottish aggression against England.

How did Henry VII manage to secure a truce with Scotland?

Through diplomatic negotiations and marriage alliances, Henry VII persuaded James III (and later James IV) to agree to truces that reduced border raids and stabilised the northern frontier.

Why did Henry VII's foreign policy emphasise diplomatic negotiation over military confrontation?

Due to England's limited financial and military resources, Henry VII preferred diplomacy to avoid the high costs and risks associated with war.

How did the threat of pretenders like Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck influence Henry VII's foreign policy?

The pretender crises forced Henry VII to secure strong alliances and maintain a vigilant intelligence network, as these challenges highlighted vulnerabilities in his claim to the throne.

What were the main causes behind Lambert Simnel's conspiracy?

Simnel's conspiracy emerged from lingering Yorkist support and discontent with Henry VII's rule, with rebels using his resemblance to a missing Yorkist figure to claim legitimacy.

How did Henry VII respond to the Lambert Simnel rebellion?

Henry VII suppressed the rebellion through a combination of military force and clemency—capturing Simnel and his supporters, executing some ringleaders, while treating the young imposter with mercy.

What factors contributed to the rise of Perkin Warbeck as a pretender?

Warbeck capitalised on widespread Yorkist dissatisfaction, foreign support from France and Burgundy, and the uncertainty surrounding Henry VII's legitimacy to claim the throne.

How did Warbeck's invasions challenge Henry VII's rule?

Warbeck's repeated invasions forced Henry VII to divert resources, negotiate with foreign powers, and take harsh repressive measures, exposing vulnerabilities in his regime.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Stoke (1487) concerning the pretender rebellions?

The Battle of Stoke marked the last significant armed rebellion in England, where Henry VII decisively defeated Yorkist forces supporting Lambert Simnel, thereby consolidating his rule.

How did Henry VII use acts of attainder to strengthen his regime?

He passed acts of attainder against nobles and conspirators, confiscating their estates and using the proceeds to replenish royal finances while deterring further rebellion.

What was the significance of Henry VII's limited creation of new peerages?

By creating very few new peerages, Henry VII maintained a small, controllable nobility, reducing the power of potential rivals and ensuring that high office remained a mark of exceptional loyalty.

How did Henry VII's personal background influence his approach to ruling?

Having spent years in exile and coming from relatively modest origins, Henry VII was cautious, pragmatic, and determined to restore royal authority and financial stability through tight control and reform.

In what ways did Henry VII transform the administration of local government?

He improved the efficiency of local government by strengthening the roles of justices of the peace and sheriffs, centralising oversight through royal agents, and establishing regional councils.

How did the Council of the North function under Henry VII's rule?

The Council of the North, directly appointed by the king, was responsible for maintaining law and order in northern England and ensuring that royal decrees were enforced throughout the region.

What role did the Council of Wales and the Marches play during Henry VII's reign?

It extended royal authority into Wales and the border regions by overseeing local administration and mediating disputes among the powerful Marcher lords.

How did Henry VII address the governance of Ireland?

He initially attempted to rule Ireland through appointed deputies and later implemented Poynings' Law, which required Irish legislation to receive royal approval, thereby tightening control over Irish affairs.

What was the impact of Henry VII's policy on the local administration in England?

His policies led to a more centralised system, with increased oversight of local officials, improved efficiency in the enforcement of law and order, and a reduction in arbitrary noble power.

How did Henry VII's reforms in local government contribute to national stability?

By bringing local administration under closer royal control, his reforms reduced the likelihood of regional rebellions, ensured consistent law enforcement, and integrated distant regions into a unified state.

What was the role of sheriffs under Henry VII's government?

Sheriffs, appointed annually from among local landowners, were responsible for enforcing the king's law, organising local militias, and ensuring that taxes and fines were collected efficiently.

How did the role of justices of the peace (JPs) evolve during Henry VII's reign?

JPs gained increased responsibility in local governance, acting as judges, enforcing laws, and replacing some of the traditional powers of the sheriffs, thus bringing government closer to the people.

How did Henry VII use Parliament to consolidate his power?

He convened Parliament sparingly to pass crucial legislation—such as acts curbing illegal retaining and imposing attainders—which reinforced royal authority and secured the financial resources needed for his regime.

Why was Henry VII's relationship with Parliament more cautious than that of previous monarchs?

Having come to power as a usurper, he was wary of alienating influential landowners and sought to avoid excessive taxation or legislation that might provoke opposition.

How did Henry VII's cautious use of taxation help maintain political stability?

By imposing taxes only when absolutely necessary and keeping rates modest, he avoided widespread discontent among his subjects and reduced the risk of igniting further rebellions.

What were the long-term effects of Henry VII's financial reforms on the Tudor state?

His reforms restored royal finances, reduced dependence on noble largesse, and created a stable revenue base that allowed subsequent Tudor monarchs to build a more centralised and modern state.

How did Henry VII's government help lay the foundations for a modern centralised state in England?

By centralising financial administration, reforming local government, and curbing noble abuses, his policies reduced feudal fragmentation and paved the way for a more efficient, bureaucratic state.

How did Henry VII's use of forced loans and benevolences affect his relationship with his subjects?

These measures, while unpopular, provided the Crown with essential funds without raising taxes directly; his efficient collection and occasional clemency helped maintain order and deter dissent.

What role did the "Council Learned in the Law" play in Henry VII's administration?

This specialised council, staffed by legally trained officials, was tasked with enforcing the king's prerogative rights, ensuring the collection of fines, bonds, and recognisances, and curbing corruption.

How did Henry VII's reliance on "new men" differ from previous monarchs' reliance on the traditional nobility?

Unlike earlier kings who depended largely on hereditary aristocrats, Henry VII favoured capable, loyal administrators from the gentry and lower nobility, thereby reducing the influence of established noble factions.

Who were some of Henry VII's key "new men" in government?

Notable figures included Sir Reginald Bray, Edmund Dudley, Sir Edward Poynings, and Sir Thomas Lovell, all of whom played critical roles in financial administration and the enforcement of royal policies.

How did Henry VII's approach to patronage differ from that of Edward IV?

Henry VII was far more cautious, rewarding only those who demonstrated proven loyalty and service, and limiting the number of new titles and offices to avoid creating an overly large and independent nobility.

What was the significance of Henry VII's restoration of the Order of the Garter?

Reviving the Order of the Garter allowed Henry VII to symbolically reward his most loyal supporters without creating new hereditary peerages, reinforcing royal favour and prestige.

How did Henry VII use acts of attainder to manage disloyal nobles?

He passed acts of attainder to legally declare disloyal nobles traitors, confiscating their estates and using the proceeds to strengthen the Crown's finances while deterring further rebellion.

What was the effect of Henry VII's policy of "keeping the nobility at arm's length" on court culture?

This policy reduced the direct influence of high nobles in daily court affairs, concentrating power in the hands of the king's chosen advisers and reducing the likelihood of factional disputes.

How did Henry VII's personal frugality influence his image as a ruler?

His reputation for financial prudence, even to the point of being called a miser by some chroniclers, reinforced the perception that he was determined to restore and safeguard the Crown's finances.

What role did the rebuilding of royal palaces, such as Sheen (Richmond) and Greenwich, play in Henry VII's regime?

The rebuilding of these palaces not only demonstrated royal wealth and power but also served as centres for administering government, impressing visitors and legitimising the Tudor dynasty.

How did Henry VII's cautious diplomacy contribute to the stability of his reign?

By avoiding expensive wars and focusing on securing truces and alliances, Henry VII reduced external threats and maintained a stable, secure environment that allowed him to consolidate power at home.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Medina del Campo for England's dynastic security?

The treaty secured a crucial marriage alliance between his son Arthur and Catherine of Aragon, thereby gaining recognition and support from Spain and strengthening Henry VII's dynastic legitimacy.