Unit 4

Formal Operational (Piaget)

~11 years old

• ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically

  • possibilities that don’t exist in reality, considering the future

  • hypothetical deductive reasoning

• not universal; varies with situation, experience

Hypothetical Deductive Reasoning (Piaget Formal Operational)

ability to consider problems, generate and schematically test hypothesis, drawing conclusion

Hypothetical and Systematic Thinking (Piaget Formal Operational)

making conclusions about the size and weight of something, systematically

Metacognition in Adolescence

knowledge of how the mind works and the ability to controls ones mind

improvement with:

• taking in, manipulating information

• being planful

• understanding how to learn best

• storage and retrieval

ex-

Attention

maturation of brain and advancements in executive functioning:

• response inhibition

• working memory

• able to focus on what’s important, tuning out distractions

(able to move and adapt to changes)

Response Inhibition

developing better inhibitions

• omitting a well-learned response due to situational cues

• decrease of risky behavior and urges

  • influenced by low SES impacts EF and good decision making

Scientific Thinking

apply scientific thinking and reasoning to problem-solving

improvements in:

• manipulating abstract mental representation

• hypothetical

limitation: emphasizing single solutions, trying to make it fit

Egocentrism

difficulty with perspective taking

manifested into 2 phenomena:

Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable

peak in middle adolescence and decreases from there

Imaginary Audience

adolescents misdiract their own preoccupation about themselves towards others, assuming that they are the focus of other’s attention, “all eyes on me”

Personal Fable

adolescents belief that they are special, unique, and invulnerable

• believe no one else understands their intense emotions

• immune to risky behaviors

Adolescent Reasoning

• Idealism and Criticalness

• Argumentativeness - wanting to show of their reasoning abilities and logic skills

• Indecisiveness - imagining hypothetical possibilities

• Apparent Hypocrisy - not recognizing their behavior is inconsistant with ideals

Idealism and Criticalness

able to envision an ideal world,

becoming aware of how others fall short (parents, celebrity)

convinced they know better

Piaget Postformal Reasoning

Dualistic Thinking - black and white thinking

Realistic Thinking - knowledge is subjective, depends on the individual or situation

Reflective Judgement - evaluates different views and belief and notices contradictions among perspectives

Pragmatic Thought

applying reflective judgement (postformal) to both abstract, practical everyday situations, and real world problems

• acceptance of contradictions

Cognitive-affective Complexity

emotions playing a part in reasoning and problem solving

• increases through middle adulthood

Cognitive Growth in College and Subjective Challenges

• development of postformal reasoning, knowledge, skills

  • first gen

  • non traditional

First Generation Students

neither parent has a 4 year degree

subjective challenges

• few resources for understanding and support college students

• 1st gen, working, no one

Non-traditional students

over the age of 25

• challenge: juggling multiple roles as they attend school

• benefit: readiness to learn and problem-centered orientation

The Forgotten Third

those who go directly into the workforce after high school (1/3)

Reasons:

• desire to work, undesired to learn

• financial barriers

• lack of support from family

Substantive Complexity and Cognitive Growth after College

substantive complexity - the degree to which job requires thoughts and judgment

• reciprocal relationship between substantive completive and cognitive flexibility

Spillover hypothesis - cognitive gains from works carry over to leisurely activities

Career Influences

• match based on personality, ability, job interests

  • most satisfied when career matched

• socioeconomic status

• parental supper and ethnic identity

Hollands Occupational Themes

Investigative - works with ideas, researcher

Social - teacher, nurse

Realistic - objects and real-world problems, mechanic

Artistic

Conventional - prefers structure, accountant

Enterprising - leading others, politics

Explanation for access of jobs today

• jobs not ideal, but provide opportunity to learn skills and preferences

• starting at bottom with low level work, resulting in more job transitions

  • gender differences in western societies: men employed consistently, women have more varied and discontinuous paths

Identity and Identity Confusion (Erikson)

Identity: a coherent sense of self; including values, attitudes, and goals

• experimentation with roles and personality; forming an enduring self of sense (identity achievement)

Psychosocial Moratorium (Erikson)

time between childhood security and adult autonomy

• most unsure time of identity

• ex. college

Marsia’s Identity Statuses

exploration of self and commitment to goals and beliefs

• time of instability

• achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, and diffusion

Identity Achievement

coherent sense of self, reflection, exploring new ideas

• high self-esteem, problem solving, positive view

Identity Foreclosure

committed to an identity without exploring options

• rigid beliefs

• black and white thinking

• avoids exploration, follows roles around them

Identity Diffusion

both commitment and exploration is absent

• academic setbacks

• avoidant, not problem solvers

• apathy

• alcohol and substance abuse

• least mature level of identity

Identity Moratorium

not committed, but explores alternates

• where most adolescents fall

• exploration peaks at 19

• open to experiences

• positive view

Similarities of Identity Achievement and Identity Moratorium

prosocial, healthy romantic relationships, positive view of self

• best outcomes

Similarities of Identity Diffusion and Identity Foreclosure

passivity, maladaptive long term outcomes

Influences on Identity Formation

support system helps individuals explore identity

• Authoritative Parenting

• Encouragement to Explore Opportunities

• Attachment to Peers

Ethnic Identities

A sense of membership to a particular group including attitudes, values, beliefs, feelings associated with a specific group

• linked to language and social networks

Differences between first and second gen immigration students

First generation immigrants: more secure in identity, resistance to change

Second gen immigrants: more likely to identify as American

• challenge: making a choice of adopting corresponding beliefs to their original culture

  • bicultural identity

Sexual Identity

individuals sense of self regarding sexual attitudes, behaviors, and sexuality

• develops with exploration and commitment

Sexual Orientation

pattern of romantical, emotional, and sexual attraction to whatever sex

• not always linear or stable

Increased Risks among LGBT youth

increased harassment and bullying

• risk of depression, self-harm, suicide, risky sexual practices

most youth LGBT are accepted,

support from family to buffer social stigmatism and prejudice

School Response to LGBT Youth

• Gay, Straight Alliance groups (GSA)

• schools with GSA groups have lower rates of

  • suicide, smoking/drinking, casual sex

• cause a greater wellbeing

• Attachment Theory

most adolescents show a secure attachment style

• viewing parents as secure base

• determines future support system

• adolescent rebellion ideology skewed (1/5 teenagers)

  • G.S. Hall, Sigmund Freud

Parental Control

authortative is most favorable

permissive/lax parenting

• interferes w/ self-regulatory skils

Parent-child relationships are sustained with family activities

• parental monitoring

  • best: respect adolescent’s privacy and autonomy

Parent-Adolescent Conflict

Strive For Autonomy: wanting the ability to make and carry out their own decisions

• increase in early adolescence, peaking in middle, decrease in towards late adolescence

Peers

unsupervised time with peers goes up as time spent with family goes down

• 1/3 of waking, non school hours spent with peers

• peers are the most recognizable influence on adolescense

Peer Groups

adolescents friendships are relatively unstable

• number

• intensity

• importance

other sex friendships more common

boys: physical, group activities (games)

girls: dynamic interactions (sitting and talking)

friends tend to be similar

Cliques and Crowds

Clique: peer groups, 5-7 members, very close

• establish norms through interactions

Crowds: classify peers on perceived similarities and reputations

• not necessarily friends

Peer Conformity

greatest pressure to conform at age 14

• activities and day-to-day choices (music, appearance)

pressure to engage in prosocial, positive behaviors

deviant behavior more common in groups than a single individual

Substance Use and Abuse 18 y/o statistics

By the end of HS

• 50% of teens have dried a drug

• 67% tried alcohol

  • normative

  • can affect developmental function

Greater Risks of Drug Abuse

• starting earlier

• contextual factors

  • low parent warmth/involvement

  • dysfunction in family

  • disadvantaged communicates

Rates associated with Sexual Activity

• rates of sexual intercourse are declining

• earlier activity (before 15) associated with delinquent activity and poor academic achievement

• internalizing behavior in girls

• condoms most common method of contraceptive use

  • used sporadically not consistently

Factors of Sexual Behavior

Contraceptive Use

• condoms are most common method but not used consistentally

Authoritative Parents

• open discussions lead to safe sex

• friends attitudes towards sex influence behavior of individual

Adolescent Pregnancy

• U.S. has one of the highest teen birth rates

• mother consequences: drop out, not independent

• child: poverty, poor school achievement, delinquency

• fathers: 60% remain in contact

  • associated with better academic and socioemotional results

Define Adolesence

A time of maturing physically

• developing more adult ways of thinking

• gaining independence from family

• constructing new sense of identity (self concept)

Influences and Historical Context of Adolescent Period

Children expected to go straight from education to a job, no label for in-between

Influences for how long the adolescent period is:

• longer education in childhood

• social constructs - adolescence period due to developed norms in society

Three Phases of Adolescence

• 11-14: Early Adolescence

• 14-16: Middle Adolescence

• 16-18: Late Adolescence

Storm and Stress (G. Stanley Hall)

• father of adolescence psychology, describing adolescence as “storm and stress”

  • fighting caregivers for identity and independence

Accuracy of “Storm and Stress” G Stanley Hall

research disagrees, most parent and children relationships are healthy at this time

• self fulfilling prophecy with parents manifesting storm and stress for children

  • influenced cultural contexts and demands, impact of expectations

Define Puberty

~4 year process (can be 1-7 years)

• biological transition into adulthood (ends before reaching adulthood)

• adolescents mature physically and become capable of reproduction

Physical Changes in Puberty

increase in bone density for both genders

heart and lungs grow more for boys than girls

Adolescent Growth Spurt

girls: ~10 years old (7-14)

boys: ~12 years old (9-16)

Onset

begins by 8 - triggers puberty to occur

• increases in testosterone and estrogen in children

Secondary Sex Characteristics

characteristics not related to reproductive, signs of sexual maturity

• growth spurt, acne, lower voice, breasts and pubic hair occur

Primary Sex Characteristics

maturing of reproductive organs

girls: maturity in ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina

• Menarche: first mensuration ~12.5

boys: maturity of testes

• Spermarche: first ejaculation ~13

Influences of Pubertal Timing (biological and contextual influences)

• genes

  • similar to parents

• critical level of body weight

  • must have enough fat content for puberty to start - leptin

• social contexts

  • unsafe social contexts go through puberty later

Secular Trend

• the lowering of the average age of puberty with each generation

  • Why? healthcare and proper fat materials

• challenge: sexual maturity is early but adulthood is later

Early maturing for boys

• starts before 9 (advantage for sports)

  • hanging out with people with similar size of physical structure (risk taking)

  • generally viewed as positive

  • internalizing and externalizing issues

Pubertal Timing Effects for Girls

Early maturing: starts before age 8

• increased risk of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem

• negative view of pubertal timing

• higher risk of harassment and abuse

  • sexual risk-taking

  • substance abuse

Nutrition

increased nutritional needs

• growth spurt, bones and organs

Diets worsen

• fewer meals with family

• ½ of recommended quantity for fruits and veggies

• increased consumption of soda, fast food

• less exercise and more screen-time (11+)

  • irregular eating habits and less exercise/play

Delayed Phase preference

change in sleep patterns triggered by puberty

• melatonin for adolescence gets released 2 hours later

• needing about 9 hours of sleep each night

Brain Changes in Adolescence

larger, faster, more efficient

• cerebral cortex

• amygdala and limbic system

• prefrontal cortex

• Corpus Collosum - increased communication and coordination between brain hemispheres; processing information more quickly

• pruning

Volume of cerebral cortex

girls peak: ~10.5

boys peak: ~14.5

Prefrontal Cortex (Slow System)

system that is involved in planning, judgement, and decision making (executive functions)

• part of dual systems model

neurogenesis

• changes in brain structure and function due to release of new hormones

• 2nd burst of synapsis

• myelination increase in prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum

  • requires more time to mature

Amygdala (Limbic/Fast system)

part of dual systems model

using heuristics

• responsible for emotions

• develops quickly, before other regions can control it

• more active in adolescence than adults

White Matter

White matter

• made up of myelinated axons

• increased in adolescence

Grey Matter

• peaks in early adolescence, declines while approaching adulthood

Pruning

pruning decreases grey matter, while increasing white matter

molds prefrontal cortex

• increases cognitive functioning

Risk Taking Behavior in Early Adolescence

universal, shifts in serotonin and dopamine

• neurotransmitters and limbic system - sensitive to rewards and adrenaline for risk taking

• seeking immediate rewards without considering consequences

• immature prefrontal Cortex - area responsible for making responsible choices (still developing in adolescence)

• • • decrease: late adolescence

Social Cognition in Adolescence

how we interpret our social world and interact with it

• misidentifying emotional expressions (mistaking neutral faces for anger)

  • impacting social interactions

Social Perspective Taking

allowing to take other’s perspective to guide behavior

• dependent on medial prefrontal cortex (less active in adolescence)

Socioemotional Development In Early/Emerging Adulthood

• instability

• identity of exploration - starts in adolescence

• feeling in-between (child and adult)

• self-focus

SOcioemotional Contextual factors

not universal, but found in many cultures

Physical Development in Early Adulthood

peak performance

• reproductive, circulatory, respiratory systems

Age 30: senescence

• age related decline in physical functioning with maintained endurance until around 60 years old

  • rate due to biology, experience, and environment,

Why the age of first birth(s) increasing

• emphasis on education and career in early adulthood

• decreased teen pregnancies

Infertility in the U.S.

inability to conceive a baby after 12 months of trying

• fertility drops around mid 30’s

  • 7% of U.S. couples

Biological Influences on Fertility

Female Factors

• ovarian cysts

• failure to ovulate, fewer ova

Male Factors

• lower sperm quality starting in 40s - many explanations (stress, radiation, health, etc.)

Substance Use

rates begin in adolescence,

peek in early 20s,

decrease by middle adulthood

• many reasons for personal decrease

Alcohol Use

consuming 4-5+ drinks in one sitting

most common drug in use

• rate of binge drinking declines in 20’s

• 8.7% of college students qualify

Marijuana

2nd most commonly used

sustaned use:

• cognitive difficulties, lower income and academics, conflict in interpersonal, poor life satisfaction

Tabacco

leading cause of death in U.S.

• most smokers start before age 18

• 13% of emerging adults

• 62% of young adults are social smokers

• e-cigarettes more harmful to lungs, 40% of adults report usage

Erikson’s Adult Stage of Psychosocial Development

Intimacy Vs. Isolation (18-40)

• timing on events model: social clock

Intimacy vs. Isolation - Erikson

Intimacy:

• decreased independence

• developing ability for intimacy

• making commitment to a romantic partner

• strong identity helps

Isolation:

• lonely, self absorbent

• avoidant, hesitant to form close ties

• fear of losing identity

Social Clock and Timing of Events

• normative age-graded events

Bernice Neugarten

• age-graded expectations for life events

  • expectations can be flexible- also depend

• following social clock allows for more confidence

• feeling distressed if falling behind

Personality in Emerging Adulthood

Openness- degree you are open to new experiences

Conscientiousness- detail oriented, responsible

Extroversion- degree of how outgoing someone is

Agreeableness- how trusting, cooperative, helpful

Neuroticism- prone to experiences negative emotions frequently

• effects career, family, and personal choices

How Personality affects timing of events

high in consciousness - complete college

high in extraversion - get married

high in neuroticism - get divorced

Personality and Intimate Relationships

• spouses become more similar overtime

  • wellbeing, health, interests

  • effects satisfactions and span of relationship

• couples with more similar demographics, interests, values, personality, and attitudes tend to be healthier

• marital satifisaction linked with similar personilaty

Adult Friendships

• based on reciprocity

• based on similarity

  • demographics, attitudes, values

Effects of Friendships

• protect people from stress

• social support

• better social competence

• increased life satisfaction- lower levels of depression and anxiety

Friendship Characteristics in Adulthood

• recently married people have the greatest amount of friends

• single adults rely on friends for social support and acceptance

Gender Differences in Adulthood Relationships

• woman have more long lasting friendships, and spend more time with their friends, relying on them for social and emotional support

• men multitask, while updating

Romantic Relationships in Emerging Adulthood

influences partner selections

• physical proximity

• similarity

• gender differences

  • women look for: earning, intelligence, height, character, similar age or older

  • men look for: younger partner, attractive, domestic skills

Intimacy

sharing personal details, providing support, companionship, affection

Sternberg’s Triarchy of Love

3 pieces of “love”, striving for all 3

• Non Love: no passion, no intimacy, no compassion

• Liking: intimacy, can be friends

• Infatuation: passion, physical attraction without intimacy or commitment

• Empty Love: commitment, making the commitment to stay without intimacy or passion

Combinations of Sternberg’s Triarchy of Love

• Romantic Love: passion and intimacy; drawn together physically and emotionally but no long term commitment

• Companion Love: intimacy and commitment; long-term friendships, marriages

• Fatuous Love: passion and commitment; making commitments without intimacy

• Consummate Love: passion, commitment, and intimacy