AP Psychology Unit 2 - Cognition, Irondale.

Part 1

Long-term potentiation LTP

An increase in a nerve cells firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation (A neural basis for learning and memory)

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons

Explicit processing

requires EFFORT, retention of facts and experiences we can consciously know and declare (e.g. your moms name)

Implicit processing

AUTOMATIC, retention of learned skills or classical conditioned associations (e.g. riding a bike)

Magic number 7 plus or minus two

we can store about 7 pieces of info in Short Term Memory (e.g. 7 seas, 7 continents, etc)

Chunking

the process of grouping thinks to make them easier to remember

Mnemonics

MEMORY AIDS, techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effort

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice. (e.g. you study better in morning and night rather than all at once for 8 hours straight)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than re-reading info

mental set

predisposes how we think. we think to approach problems in ways that have worked in the past.

belief perseverance

the tendency to cling to ones initial beliefs

representative heuristics

Judging likelihood of events based on how well they math prototypes, ignoring relevant info

availability heuristics

judging likelihood of events based off how easily something comes to mind

recall

retrieve info learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

relearning

asses the amount of time saved when learning material

rehearsal

the process of repeating info to maintain STM in order to transfer it to LTM

Shallow vs. deep processing

shallow: focusing on weak analysis of info like sound or appearance leading to overall weaker understanding

Deep: meaningful, connects new info to existing knowledge leading to better recall

how is each brain region associated w/ memory

frontal: working memory

hippocampus: a neural center in limbic system, forms new memories

cerebellum: procedural “how-to” memories

amygdala: emotional memories

memory consolidation

the neural storage for long-term memory, a storage process. hippocampus = loading dock → migrate to cortex. supported by SLEEP

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotional event

five components of creativity

expertise, intrinsic motivation, venturesome personality, creative environment, imaginative thinking.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. For example, seeing the word "yellow" can make a person more likely to recognize a "banana".

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing studies of different practices

state-dependent memory

a phenomena where your in the same state when previously learning info you can recall it better. (e.g. sitting up right in a desk facing the same direction when studying and doing the same when taking a test helps you recall better)

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are congruent with ones current mood.

storage decay

when memories aren’t used, over time it gradually weakens

retrieval failure —> tip of the tongue phenomenon

info is retained in memory storage but can’t be accessed

interference

competing memories or info obstruct the ability to retrieve or learn other info

Retrograde amnesia

inability to RETRIEVE new memories

anterograde amnesia

inability to FORM new memories

proactive vs retroactive interference

PO/RN

misinformation effect

memories become skewed when presented with inaccurate info

Elizabeth loftus

1 verb changes an experience: car collides “hit” or “smash” → which has more speed.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined

definition of intelligence

many different definitions, a capacity to learn from experiences and adapt successfully to ones environment

spearman’s argument

we have 1 general intelligence, FACTOR ANALYSIS → core factor “G” (underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Fluid and crystallized intelligence

Fluid: ability to reason abstractly and solve new problems (decreases with age)

Crystallized: ability to use acquired knowledge throughout life(increase with age)

multiple intelligences

people can have exceptional abilities in one area while struggling in others, intelligence isn’t 1 entity. GARDNER —> savant syndrome, good at 1 talent limited elsewhere.

analytical

academic problem solving. (e.g. ACT predicting your grades in college)

Practical

innovative smarts, the ability to adapt to new situations

creative

everyday tasks. may be poorly defined and may have multiple solutions

Emotional intelligences and its four components

perceiving emotions: recognizing them in faces, music, etc

understanding emotions: predicting them and how they may change

managing emotions

using emotions

how do we measure intelligence?

aptitude tests: capacity to learn, a test designed to predict a persons future performance

achievement tests: a test designed to assess what a person has learned

Francis Galton

1884, Eugenics: Measure of human traits & those deemed “fit” to reproduce

Alfred Binet

binet-simon scale (all French children go to school…) showed how they learned

Mental age: the level of performance associated with an age

Lewis Terman

1911, Stanford-binet scale (widely used American revision of Binet’s original IQ test)

IQ: the ratio of mental age to age * 100

David Wäscher

2008, WAIS (both an overall itnellegiance score and verbal score, reasoning, memory, etc. used to identify those who needed special education

WISC

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of the human abilities, attitudes, and traits

standardization

all tests normed, a large representative sample with uniform procedures

Normal Curve

scores on an aptitude test tend to form a bell shape, around the average

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results and repeatability

validity

a test measures or predicts what its supposed to

Content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts behavior its deigned to predict

Flynn effect

IQ keeps rising over time

Cohort

a group sharing common characteristics

cohort effects

the shared attitudes and behaviors that are unique to a group born and raised during the same time period

Twin studies on intelligence

showed how identical twins share intelligence and how there is no fixed % of intelligence from heredity and environment

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious active processing of both incoming sensory info and info retrieved from long term memory

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling use of goal-directed behavior

algorithms

logic rule that guarantees a solution (e.g. retracing steps)

depth and distance

3 dimensional perceptions ←- 2 dimensional images fall on retinas

visual cliff

Gibson walk - 1960. (infants and cliff experiment) showed how infants have depth perception

retinal disparity

each eye receives a different image (eyes 2.5 inches apart). the closer the object the greater the retinal disparity

relative clarity

more light passes through far away objects (hazy/blurry). whereas nearby objects are clear

linear perspective

parallel lines come together, road

relative size

small image = further away

proximity

elements close together appear to be grouped together (three lines and 1 line)

similarity

objects similar in appearance —> more related than dissimilar

gestalt psychology

by showing our brains automatically organize sensory info into meaningful patterns rather than simply processing individual parts

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive 1 thing and not another