Military success until 1808

Position of foreign policy in 1799

When Napoleon became First Consul, France was still fighting the War of the Second Coalition against Britain, Prussia & Austria - with Russia having recently dropped out. He was heavily concerned with the fact that defeat for France would result in the end of his rule.

War with Austria

In 1800 Napoleon sent 50000 troops over the Alps in a surprise attack against the Austrians which allowed him to win the Battle of Marengo. Another victory was secured in December 1800 at the Battle of Hohenlinden where the Austrians were forced to surrender and sign the Treaty of Luneville in 1801. France agreed to keep all of the land it had gained - Belgium, the Rhineland, Northern Italy & Tuscany - & Austria agreed to lose all its land in Italy except Vienna.

Conflict with Britain in 1796

General Hoche begun to create a plan for an invasion of England, Wales & Ireland & Irish patriot Theodobald Wolfe Tone was in France in 1796 promoting this for Irish liberation. Wolfe Tone promised popular supported if the French invaded. In late December, a French fleet of 50 ships set sail for Ireland & planned to ignite them in rebellion against the protestant English. However many things went wrong, including awful weather & the French fleet dispersed in January 1797.

Napoleon’s British invasion attempts 1797 & 1798

He declared to the Directory in 1797 that France must destroy the English monarchy to control all of Europe. However when 1100 French soldiers landed in Ireland in August 1798 the Irish refused to join them out of fear & Wolfe was captured by the Royal Navy. Admiral Nelson had also previously destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir on the 1st August, leaving France vulnerable to English invasion.

The Peace of Amiens with the British 1802 - 1805

By 1802, both countries were looking for peace as Britain was left as as France’s only enemy after Napoleon’s victory at Hohenlinden. The terms of the treaty stated that: France would leave Naples, the United Provinces & the Papal states in return for Britain to return all overseas territories taken in the last 9 years to France, return Minorca to Spain, return the South African Cape Colony to the Dutch, return Egypt to the Turks & return Malta to the Knights of St John. Britain was however allowed to keep Trinidad & Sri Lanka.

Why it failed

Neither the French or the British honoured their side of the terms as neither fully trusted the other and in May 1803, Britain declared war on France again. Napoleon spent time planning an invasion of Britain but abandoned this when he faced a new threat from Austria in 1805. Any invasion was fraught with difficulties regardless due to the strength of the Royal Navy, shown by the British victory at Trafalgar in October 1805.

France vs Britain 1803

Napoleon had created an Army of England with 130000 men by the end of 1803 & arrived on the cliffs f Calais with 2000 boats to get across the channel. This pressured the British government to come to terms with his intentions, especially as he became Emperor a year later. Both sided realised the timing had to be perfect to conduct an invasion & Napoleon planned to get his troops ashore & to London before the British could fully mobilise. Britain planned to use coastal fortifications & volunteer regiments to to delay & disrupt enemy forces until a counter attack could be launched - vast coastal defences were constructed & the Royal Navy was heavily relied on. The regular British army had 480000 volunteers in uniform by 1804.

Strength of the British Navy at the time

The Royal Navy was the strongest in the world at the time & this allowed Britain to be uniquely protected from the threat of invasion that defeated many other European countries. The navy also protected trade routes which allowed the British economy to develop must faster than any other & allowed the British Empire to form. The navy as a whole were better than the French due to its better industrial economy, well trained sailors, experienced officers & faster ships.

Napoleon’s plan to invade Britain in 1805 (War of the Third Coalition)

He knew that to successfully achieve this he had to get Nelson out of the way for long enough & planned to simply slip past him in order to reach Britain. He ordered Villeneuve to sail for the West Indies & planned that Nelson would follow. He then hoped the French would quickly sail back to France & launch a British invasion.

Why Napoleon’s plan failed (War of the Third Coalition)

His army were forced to move east to fight the Austrians & the Russians at Austerlitz instead. Villeneuve ended up being defeated at sea in the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 by Admiral Nelson which made him a British hero - defeated 33 French & Spanish ships. This confirmed to Napoleon that there was little chance of him successfully invading Britain. The alliance of the Third Coalition had also previously been established by Pitt (British PM) & signed in April 1805 by Britain, Russia & later Austria.

Napoleon’s attacks on Austria in 1805 (War of the Third Coalition)

The Battle of Ulm occurred in October 1805 where he defeated the Austrians on the River Danube & captured 50000 with minimal French losses, he was then able to enter Vienna. The Battle of Austerlitz took place in December 1806 where he forced the Austrians to retreat by inflicting a crushing defeat on the Austro-Russian force (90000 vs 68000 French men) - caused Austria to drop out of the Third Coalition.

The Battle of Austerlitz 1805 - French strengths

Napoleon provided a false display of weakness & cleverly showed the Russian prince French troops withdrawing in the pretence of discussing peace negotiations with him - the prince reported this back to his troops. He also gave up the higher ground in a false retreat used to show his men the land. His troops were loyal & dedicated & his generals trusted & he ordered all corps to gather together to maximise numbers. He also issued a proclamation stating he was proud of his soldiers. He used tactics like a bayonet charge with supporting artillery, firing cannonballs to crack the ice the enemy were on & the infantry forming squares to defend against the Russian cavalry - when one was defeated Napoleon rapidly responded by sending in the French Imperial Guard. It was also a foggy day so he was able to surprise the enemy by hiding his main strike force from view.

The Battle of Austerlitz 1805 - Russian & Austrian weaknesses

The officers were aristocratic, arrogant & ambitious & the Emperor & the Tsar were leading the armies who were not military men & didn’t know what they were doing. Some of the generals had also left overnight to sleep in the town before the battle, as opposed to Napoleon who slept with his men in the camp. The armies weren’t efficient as instructions had to be translated into multiple different languages & they fell for all of Napoleon’s traps. They suffered 27000-36000 casualties while the French suffered only 10000.

The Kingdom of Holland 1806

Napoleon created this in 1806 & appointed his younger brother Louis as King Louis I of Holland who was married to Napoleon’s stepdaughter. Louis proclaimed himself Dutch but was sacked as King of Holland in 1810 due to a disagreement with Napoleon. Despite this, Louis was a widely liked King and helped to greatly reform Holland.

The Kingdom of Naples 1806

Became a puppet state for Napoleon & Joseph Bonaparte his brother was appointed as its king. Joseph was later promoted to King of Spain in 1808 so the throne passed to Napoleon’s most trusted general Joachim Murat, who was also his brother in law.

The Confederation of the Rhine 1806

Napoleon created this after abolishing the Holy Roman Empire & declared himself as its protector. It was effectively a French puppet state & only lasted until 1813 but it is seen as a vital stage in the process of German unification in the 19th century.

Napoleon’s attacks on Prussia & Russia (War of the Third Coalition)

A new German state called the Confederation of the Rhine was established in July 1806 which angered the Prussians (already annoyed at French attempts to stop trade with Britain) & caused them to join the 3rd coalition with Britain & Russia. They were then crushed in October 1806 at the Battles of Jena & Auerstadt & Napoleon was able to take Berlin. He later defeated Russia in 1807 at the Battles of Eylau & Friedland, causing them to withdraw.

Alliance with the Russians

Napoleon defeated the Russians at the Battles of Eylau & Friedland & the Treaty of Tilsit was formalised in July to make peace. The Russians & the Prussians agreed to ally with him & join the Continental System. Napoleon & Alexander were even seen holding hands & exchanging hanker chiefs with one another.

The defeat of the Third Coalition

It was defeated in June & July 1807 as Napoleon occupied Vienna, Berlin & Warsaw. He made peace with the Russian tsar Alexander I at Tilsit & the Treaty of Tilsit (July 1807) caused Prussia to give up its share of Poland & suffer occupation from the French army until an indemnity of 120 million francs was paid & caused Russia to join the Continental System.

Napoleon’s annexation of the Papal States 1808

He ordered the occupation of Rome in February & later enlarged his Kingdom of Italy by declaring several provinces were no longer papal states in March. The provinces were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy - which he created as a puppet state - & helped strengthen the Continental System however this broke diplomatic relations between France & the Pope & Napoleon was excommunicated. His 24 year old stepson was appointed to rule the kingdom.

Defeat of Spain 1808

Spain was previously a French ally however the defeat at Trafalgar, the Continental System & the hatred of French troops meant it was close to declaring war in 1808 & on top of this the King Charles IV & his son Ferdinand were in conflict with each other. Napoleon invited both of them to meet him & resolve this however it resulted in both of them being exiled & Napoleon’s brother Joseph becoming King of Spain.

Why Napoleon’s army was so successful

It was full of officers & generals who had been appointed through meritocracy for their hard work which contrasted the outdated European armies filled with aristocracy - however he did create an aristocracy by providing titles to these men, making it harder for the 2nd generation to achieve the same thing. There was a new emphasis on military training & weaponry advances like lighter field artillery. He utilised conscription to create a massive army (half of France’s 28 mil population & men from the expanding Empire) & then split it into corps that lived off the land - each with a general, infantry, artillery & cavalry which could split up or come together at will to attack the enemy. His soldiers were also dressed in bright, fancy uniforms to appear professional & scare the enemy & to ensure they could see each other on the battlefield. The troops also had high morale due to the process of amalgame & still held revolutionary values.

His expertise in military leadership

He had been trained in warfare & had experience & interest in tactics & military matters. His position as head of state gave him any knowledge, resources & capabilities needed for his campaigns & he could also draw resources from his satellite states. He was also well practiced at providing proclamations to & addressing & inspiring his army directly & his military tactics, like using mobility strategies & directly planning battles, were 30 years ahead of the European armies. He was able to easily abandon pre planned ideas & improvise at crucial points of the battle if needed. He displayed great personal charisma which allowed him to demand feats of endurance & sacrifice from his soldiers. He ensured his soldiers received rewards for their efforts, making them loyal to him.

The weaknesses of Napoleon’s enemies

They maintained traditional & old fashioned approaches to warfare that the French army had shunned due to Napoleon & the revolution & while they did gradually adopt French tactics, the early years showed them to be rapidly demoralised by French tricks & tactics & their will to resist being crushed by continuous defeat. They also never united against him as both the 2nd & 3rd coalitions broke as individual members made peace. The various powers fought for different purposes & Napoleon was quick to exploit any divisions between them.

Effect of the French empire on the European people

Napoleon viewed his rule over Europe as highly beneficial to the people he conquered as it spread the French enlightenment to Europe & allowed people of all backgrounds & languages to exist peacefully under a shared law. It also rid Europe of absolute rule, aristocratic privilege & feudal law.

Effect of the French empire on France

The country’s strength, power & pride was greatly increased by Napoleon’s success & by 1810 there was 130 departements & a population of 44 million by 1812. The empire provided more men for the army as well as taxation, materials & revenue for France. It also provided more sons from respected families for the French lycees & military academies.

Problems for France caused by the empire

It was expensive & the French economy was still struggling post revolution & the costs of its administration outstripped any revenue gained for France. It was nearly impossible to ensure those provided with land were loyal, even Napoleon’s family. Training was given to the Europeans to get them to the standard of the French army which helped them when they later turned on France. It imposed an alien culture, resulting in patriotic movements & uprisings in response to conscription, taxation, religion & the economic blockade. Scholarships & positions given to European imperial personnel also reduced the amount available to French citizens.

Napoleon’s decision to marry Marie Louise

He divorced Josephine in 1809 after she failed to provide him with an heir & decided to marry Marie in the same year when she was just 19 & he was 41. Napoleon was anxious to marry a European princess in order to legitimise his own rule & originally planned to marry the sister of Tsar Alexander. However the Austrians didn’t want a marriage alliance between France & Russia & they had reached a temporary peace with France so a marriage to Marie Louise was proposed by the Austrian foreign ministry.

Marie Louise’s background

She was attractive & accomplished & of worth as a pawn to be used in political foreign affairs. She spoke several languages fluently to allow her to be married off to the best possible candidate for Austria. The ambassadors of France & Austria arranged the marriage & she had no idea it was happening & no input into the marriage contract. She was married to him on March 11th 1810 without ever having met Napoleon & he wasn’t even present at their first ceremony in Vienna. A second ceremony later occurred in Paris with both of them there.

The success of the marriage

It appears Napoleon was genuinely smitten with Marie & extremely devoted to her. She was faithful & obedient to him & he was greatly pleased by this. On March 20th 1811 she gave birth to Napoleon’s son & Napoleon was overjoyed that she had survived the birth & promised to to not have any more children so she no longer had to suffer.

Deterioration of the marriage

Austria eventually turned on Napoleon again & joined the campaign to defeat him. He remained married to Marie when he was exiled in 1815 but she was prevented by the Austrians from joining him. Marie was sent to a spa town in the company of an Austrian officer with which she fell in love & married after Napoleon died. When Napoleon escaped from exile she declined to re join him but remained fond of him & refused to publicly join in Austrian prayers over defeating the French. She was appointed Duchess of Parma after the final defeat of Napoleon & ruled on behalf of the Austrians.