physio2

Active transport

low to high, requires energy

Passive transport

high to low, no energy required

Simple diffusion

non-polar molecule diffuses through membrane, no protein required

Diffusion through channels

how ions diffuse through the membrane, require an integral protein since they are polar

osmosis

movement of water from high to low solute concentration via aquaporin

facilitated diffusion

transport that requires an integral protein that changes orientation to let molecules into the cell; how glucose enters the cell

Osmolarity

concentration of solute

Iso-osmotic

solute concentration inside and outside of the cell are equal

hyperosmotic

solute concentration outside of the cell is higher than inside; cell will shrink

hypo-osmotic

solute concentration outside of the cell is lower than inside; cell will burst

Osmotic pressure

the tendency of the solution to pull water towards it

high osmotic pressure

high tendency for water to be pulled towards it; cell is hypo-osmotic, meaning the solute concentration outside of the cell is lower and water will want to enter the cell (cell will swell/burst)

low osmotic pressure

low tendency for water to be pulled towards it; cell is hyperosmotic, meaning the concentration is high outside and water will want to go outside (cell will shrink)

Primary active transport

molecules go from low to high concentration and use ATP as a primary energy source

Secondary active transport (symport)

molecules go from low to high concentration and use the diffusion of a sodium ion as their energy source; sodium ion moves in the same direction as molecules

Secondary active transport (antiport)

molecules go from low to high concentration and use the diffusion of a sodium ion as their energy source; sodium ion moves in the opposite direction as molecules

endocytosis

invagination of the plasma membrane around molecules in the interstitial fluid to create a vesicle to be brought into the cell

exocytosis

a vesicle with molecules that docks to to plasma membrane, opens, and releases its contents outside of the cell and into the interstitial fluid; used by neurons to send neurotransmitters/hormones

sodium past the apical membrane

facilitative diffusion

sodium past the basolateral membrane

primary active transport

glucose past the apical membrane

secondary active transport

glucose past the basolateral membrane

facilitated diffusion

water past the apical membrane

osmosis

water past the basolateral membrane

osmosis

communication via gap junction

secretory and target cells and attached via connexon; direct communication

communicatin via chemical messenger

secretory cells release a ligand that binds to the receptor of the target cell

paracrine

a chemical messenger that is released by a secretory cell and travels a very short distance to the receptor of its target cell

autocrine

type of paracrine that is released, travels a short distance, but binds to itself

neurotransmitter

released by a neuron, travels a short distance to reach its target cell

hormone

released by a cell, travels the bloodstream to find another cell; travels incredibly long distances

hydrophilic

miscible with water, polar, lipophobic

outside of the cell

hydrophilic receptor location

hydrophillic chemical messengers

since water is polar, transport of these chemical messengers through the blood is very simple and is done via plasma

hydrophobic

not miscible with water; lipophilic; non-polar

inside of the cell; cytosol

hydrophobic receptor location

hydrophobic chemical messengers

since water is polar, transport of these chemical messengers through the blood is requires a protein

name of the protein that carries hydrophobic chemical messengers through blood

albumin

Amino acid-based chemical messenger functional class

neurotransmitters

Amino acid-based chemical messenger chemical property

hydrophilic

Amino acid-based chemical messenger receptor location

on the plasma membrane

Amine based chemical messenger functional class

mixed

Amine based chemical messenger chemical property

hydrophilic

Amine based chemical messenger receptor location

on the plasma membrane

Steroid chemical messenger receptor location

inside the cell; cytosol

Steroid chemical messenger chemical property

hydrophobic

Steroid chemical messenger functional class

hormones

Eicosanoid chemical messenger functional class

paracrine

Eicosanoid chemical messenger chemical property

hydrophobic

Eicosanoid chemical messenger receptor location

inside the cell; cytosol

Prostaglandin

eicasonoid messenger formed form arachidonic acid and created by cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX). Causes vasodilation

Cyclooxygenase enzyme (COX)

create prostaglandins from arachidonic acid

Role of asprin on headaches

NSAIDS (like asprin) bind to the same receptors COX enzymes do, thus inhibiting COX. If COX is inhibited, no prostaglandin can be formed, thus no vasodilation occurs. The blood vessels constrict and the headache is gone.

Factors that influence the magnitude of effect on chemical messengers

increasing concentration, affinity, and regulation

Concentration on magnitude of the effect of chemical messengers

increasing the concentration of the the chemical messenger increases the magnitude of effect (more epi, higher heart rate)

Affinity on magnitude of effect of chemical messengers

better affinity for a chemical messenger increases the magnitude of effect (epi vs norepi on the heart)

up-regulation

increasing the amount of receptors when there is an insufficient quantity to increase the magnitude of effect

down-regulation

decreasing the amount of receptors when the cell is oversaturated to decrease the magnitude of effect

agonist

Albuterolmimics a chemical messenger by binding/activating the same receptor and having the same reaction; Albuterol and epinephrine

antagonist

mimics a chemical messenger by binding/activating the same receptor but inhibits the messenger and prevents it from having a reaction; beta blockers and epinephrine

hormone

chemical messenger that travels through the blood stream to reach its target cell

what makes something part of the endocrine system

anything that releases hormone

humoral stimulus

a chemical/nutritional change in the blood stream (calcium levels changing in the bloodstream)

neural stimulus

the nervous system triggers a hormone release (core of the adrenal gland is controlled by the nervous system)

hormonal stimulus

a hormone triggers (TSH triggers the release of thyroid hormone)

tropic hormone

a hormone whose sole function is to trigger the release of another hormone (FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH)

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

hormone released by the anterior pituitary and orders the thyroid to release thyroid hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

released by the anterior pituitary and orders the adrenal gland to release cortisol and androgens

Gonadotropins

hormones that target gonads and order the release of their hormone, ex. LH and FSH

growth hormone (GH)

hormone that triggers the release of IGF-1 from the liver (also has non-tropic effects as it causes growth itself)

Prolactin

hormone that goes to the breast gland to stimulate milk production (pathway can be active in men as well)

Anterior pituitary hormones

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, GH, Prolactin

hypothalamus on the anterior pituitary

Hypothalamus releases hormones into the bloodstream which are received by the anterior pituitary and release inhibiting hormones or releasing hormones

releasing hormones

order the anterior pituitary to release its hormones

inhibiting hormones

order the anterior pituitary to not release its hormones

testosterone/estrogen loop

the hypothalamus releases GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) which goes to the anterior pituitary and orders the release of FSH or LH which go to the gonads and release testosterone in men or estrogen in women. Too much of these hormones initiate the negative feedback loop

anterior pituitary gland

gland (structure made up of epithelial cells) that is part of the endocrine system

posterior pituitary gland

endocrine structure made up of neurons, axons, etc., so it is part of the brain

Posterior pituitary hormones

oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin)

Oxytocin

release is triggered by a neural stimulus caused by the stretching of the uterus that induces a positive feedback loop as it increases uterine contractions until the baby is birthed. Also occurs during breastfeeding as the mechanical sucking stimulus triggers the letdown reflex, releasing milk and this hormone

Vasopressin (ADH)

released when the solute concentration in the blood is high and causes water retention to dilute blood concentration; pee less

Type 1 diabetes

incapable of secreting insulin

Type 2 diabetes

body does not recognize insulin

Thyroid hormone (T3 and T4)

* Released from the thyroid
* Release of this hormone is caused by the release of TSH (form the anterior pituitary), a tropic hormone that orders the release of thyroid hormones
* Acts on various structures of the body
* Functions to regulate metabolism growth, and development

Calcitonin

* Released from the thyroid
* Released when blood calcium levels are too high (humoral stimulus)
* Acts on bones
* Functions to activate osteoblasts and cause more calcium to go into your bones, thus reducing the amount of calcium available in the blood stream

Parathyroid hormone

* Released from the parathyroid gland
* Released when blood calcium levels are low
* Acts on bones
* Functions to increase calcium levels in the blood

Aldosterone

* Released from the adrenal gland
* Released when you are dehydrated
* Acts on the kidney
* Functions to make you pee less

Cortisol

* Released from the adrenal gland
* Released when you are stressed
* Acts on the immune system
* Functions to suppress the immune system (cortisone creams on rash, rash disappears ← suppressed the immune reaction of a rash)

Androgens

* Released from gonads and adrenal glands
* Released when secondary sex characteristics begin to develop; puberty
* Acts on secondary sex characteristic structures (facial hair, etc.)
* Function to develop secondary sex characteristics as well as create estrogen (aromatase converts androgens released by women into estrogen)

Epinephrine

* Released by the adrenal medulla (in the core of the adrenal glands)
* Released when the body is preparing for physical activity
* Acts on the heart to increase heart rate, reduce digestion, and increase respiratory rate
* Function to equipt the body for fight or flight situations

Insulin

* Released by the beta cells in the pancreas
* Released when there is a rise of glucose in the bloodstream
* Acts on the blood stream
* Function to reduce blood sugar levels in the blood by ordering its uptake

Melatonin

* Released by the pineal gland
* Released when the neurons dont detect any light stimulus
* Acts on light recepting neurons
* Functions to contribute to sleep

Central nervous system parts

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system parts

motor and sensory neurons

motor neurons (efferent)

send information FROM the CNS to the periphery

sensory neurons (afferent)

send information TO the CNS from the periphery

Types of motor neurons

somatic and autonomic

somatic nervous system

have concious control over, associated with skeletal muscle fibers as it is attached to bone and can control movement

autonomic nervous system

have no conscious control over

parts of the autonomic nervous system

sympathetic and parasympathetic

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight; decrease digestion while increasing heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure