Key Concepts in Education, Culture, and Social Justice

Equality vs. Equity

Equality means treating everyone the same, while equity ensures fairness by giving each person what they specifically need to succeed.

Educational Tracking

The practice of grouping students by ability or performance levels.

Multiple Identities

People have overlapping identities such as race, gender, class, language, and religion that shape their experiences.

The Leisure Class (Veblen)

Described the wealthy elite as a 'leisure class' that displayed wealth through 'conspicuous consumption.'

Normal Education

Normal schools were early teacher training institutions that set 'norms' for preparing educators.

Microaggression Theory

Subtle, often unintentional insults or actions that target marginalized groups.

Single-Sex Education

This is the practice of separating boys and girls into different schools or classes.

High/Low Culture

'High culture' refers to elite, intellectual, or refined traditions like opera or fine art, while 'low culture' refers to popular, everyday culture like pop music or TV.

Intelligent Design

Argues that life is too complex to be explained solely by evolution and must be the work of a higher power.

Macroculture

The dominant culture that shapes norms, language, and institutions in a society.

Microcultures

Are smaller cultural groups that exist within a larger society.

Visible Culture

Includes the outward expressions of a group such as clothing, music, art, and food.

Invisible Culture

Refers to the deeper values, norms, and beliefs of a group that are not immediately seen.

Tourist Approach

This is a superficial way of teaching multicultural content that reduces cultures to food, festivals, and holidays.

Classlessness

The myth that the U.S. has no social classes and everyone has equal opportunity.

Null Curriculum

Refers to what schools leave out of the curriculum, whether intentionally or not.

IQ Testing

Were designed to measure intelligence but often contain cultural and language bias. For example, an English learner might score lower not because of ability but because the test was written in English.

Meritocracy

The belief that success comes only from talent and hard work. This ignores systemic barriers such as racism, sexism, and poverty that limit equal opportunity.

An American Dilemma (Myrdal)

Studied U.S. race relations, highlighting the contradiction between the country's democratic ideals and its practices of segregation and racism. It revealed a gap between American values and lived reality.

The Process of Education (Jerome Bruner)

The Process of Education argued for a 'spiral curriculum,' where students revisit concepts at increasing levels of complexity. He emphasized discovery learning and building on prior knowledge.

Title IX

(1972) bans sex-based discrimination in education programs receiving federal funds. A major impact was ensuring equal funding and opportunity for women's athletics.

Cultural Literacy (E.D. Hirsch)

Argued that students need a shared body of cultural knowledge to be fully literate and active citizens. For example, understanding U.S. history, literature, and civic traditions allows equal participation in society.

Establishment Clause

Part of the First Amendment, it prohibits the government from establishing an official religion. This means public schools cannot promote religious practices.

Free Exercise Clause

Part of the First Amendment, it protects individuals' right to practice their religion freely. For example, students may pray privately in schools as long as it is not school-sponsored.

McCollum v. Board (1948)

The Supreme Court ruled religious instruction in public schools unconstitutional. This reinforced separation of church and state in education.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

The Court ruled that school-sponsored prayer violates the Establishment Clause. Even voluntary prayer led by schools is unconstitutional.

Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

The Court developed the 'Lemon Test' to decide if laws violate the Establishment Clause: they must have secular purpose, not advance religion, and avoid excessive entanglement.

Gunnar Myrdal

Swedish economist and author of An American Dilemma (1944). He highlighted the contradiction between America's democratic ideals and its practices of segregation and racism. His work was influential in shaping the debate leading up to Brown v. Board of Education.

William James

Known as the 'father of American psychology' and a leader of pragmatism. He argued that education should focus on practical outcomes and the role of experience in shaping learning. His ideas laid the foundation for educational psychology.

Karl Marx

Philosopher and economist who emphasized class struggle and inequality under capitalism. In education, his theories explain how schools reproduce social class divisions instead of eliminating them. He influenced critical pedagogy and theories of social reproduction.

Jerome Bruner

Cognitive psychologist who promoted discovery learning and the 'spiral curriculum,' where students revisit topics at deeper levels over time. He believed learning should be active and connected to prior knowledge. His ideas encouraged inquiry-based education.

Beverly Tatum

Psychologist and scholar on racial identity development. In her book Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?, she explained how students form racial groups as part of identity development.

Cultural Capital

The knowledge and skills passed down by families that advantage some students.

Habitus

The unconscious ways people act based on their social class.

Multicultural Education

An educational approach that emphasizes curriculum reform, equity pedagogy, and empowering all students by including diverse cultural perspectives.

Cultural Literacy

The idea that students need a shared body of core knowledge to function in society.

Gender Bias

The tendency for teachers to give boys more attention and opportunities than girls, limiting female achievement.

Culturally Relevant Curriculum

A curriculum that includes marginalized voices and challenges systemic inequality.

Affirmative Action

Programs aimed at improving opportunities for historically marginalized groups, often criticized for dividing society.

Title IX (1972)

Federal law prohibiting sex-based discrimination in schools receiving federal funds, ensuring equal opportunities for women in academics and athletics.

Establishment Clause (First Amendment)

Prohibits the government from establishing or promoting a religion, meaning public schools cannot endorse religious practices.

Free Exercise Clause (First Amendment)

Protects individuals' right to practice their religion freely, allowing students to pray privately or form religious clubs as long as it is not school-sponsored.

McCollum v. Board of Education (1948)

Supreme Court ruling that struck down religious instruction in public schools during school hours, reinforcing separation of church and state.

Pierre Bourdieu

French sociologist who introduced the concept of 'cultural capital' and described 'habitus'.

James Banks

Considered the 'father of multicultural education', emphasizing curriculum reform and diverse cultural perspectives.

E.D. Hirsch, Jr.

Advocate of 'cultural literacy', arguing for a shared body of core knowledge for students.

David Sadker

Education researcher who exposed gender bias in classrooms, advocating for equitable teaching practices.

Christine Sleeter

Scholar of multicultural and anti-racist education, promoting culturally relevant curriculum.

Dinesh D'Souza

Conservative author critical of multiculturalism and affirmative action, arguing they undermine meritocracy.

Alfred Binet

French psychologist who created the first modern IQ test to identify students needing extra help.