African-Americans in the North and South

What was Executive Order 9981 issued by Truman in 1948 intended to do?

Abolish segregation in the US armed forces

What did Executive Order 9981 declare as official policy for the armed services?

Equality of treatment and opportunity regardless of race, colour, religion, or national origin

What committee did Executive Order 9981 establish?

The President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services

How many members were to be on the advisory committee created by Executive Order 9981?

Seven

What does "de jure" mean?

In law / legally

Why was the fight against Nazi ideology seen as ironic by many black Americans?

They were also victims of racial prejudice and discrimination at home

What roles did African-American soldiers mainly serve in during WWII?

Logistics roles rather than frontline combat

What discriminatory practice did the Red Cross follow during WWII?

Refused to accept blood donations from black people

What was the policy for black and white American soldiers stationed in Britain during WWII?

They were strictly segregated

How did British locals respond during fights between black and white American soldiers?

They often joined in on the side of black soldiers

How did Europeans view American soldiers during the war, regardless of race?

As liberators

What aspects enhanced the status of black soldiers in Europe?

Courtesy, relative wealth, and their music and culture

How did the experience in Europe affect young black American soldiers?

It was a revelation compared to their life under racism in the US South

What effect did the wartime economy have on black workers in the US?

It increased the 'Great Migration' of black workers to northern cities

Which cities saw a large influx of black families during the war?

Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland

What did black communities in northern cities gain during the war?

Political influence and better job opportunities

What campaign was promoted by black newspapers like the Chicago Defender during WWII?

The 'Double V' campaign for victory over Nazism and racism

What impact did black newspapers have on African-American communities?

They raised political awareness and encouraged activism

What was the result of increased political awareness and wealth among African-Americans?

Rise in NAACP membership and funding for legal campaigns

What was the NAACP and when was it founded?

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909

How large was NAACP membership by the time Eisenhower came to power?

Over one million members

What civil rights group was founded in 1942?

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

What approach did CORE and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters promote?

Proactive but peaceful civil rights activism

Who led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters?

A Philip Randolph

What was the purpose of the film The Negro Soldier (1944)?

To reduce prejudice among army personnel

What major race-related event occurred in Detroit in 1943?

A race riot involving 100,000 people and resulting in 34 deaths

What did historian Robert Cook argue about the impact of WWII on the South?

It did more than any other event to drag the South into the twentieth century

What was A Philip Randolph known for?

Founding a black trade union and influencing Roosevelt and Truman on civil rights issues

What major civil rights event did A Philip Randolph co-organise in 1963?

The March on Washington

What was the main limitation of wartime changes for African-Americans?

Shifts in wealth and demographics were often temporary and didn't change attitudes fundamentally

What type of work did most African-Americans in the South do during the Truman years?

Agricultural and menial service roles

Where did most African-Americans in the South live during this time?

Small rural towns

What laws enforced segregation in the South from 1876 to 1965?

Jim Crow Laws

What was the legal basis for the Jim Crow Laws?

The 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson

What doctrine did Plessy v. Ferguson establish?

'Separate but equal'

What was the reality of segregated facilities under Jim Crow?

Facilities for black people were inferior

How was education affected by segregation in the South?

It was segregated, with worse resources for black students

How were African-Americans in the South kept from voting?

Through borderline illegal methods

What role did the Church play in Southern black communities?

It was a unifying force and gave black preachers some respect from white people

Why were many African-Americans hesitant to challenge segregation?

Fear of harassment, violence, job loss, and lynching

What legacy from the 1920s and 1930s intimidated Southern African-Americans?

The threat of lynchings

How did the white population maintain control over black communities in the South?

Through social, economic, and legal pressures, and threats of violence

What was Malcolm X's reaction to the living conditions of African-Americans in Washington, D.C.?

He was astounded by the extreme poverty and crime just blocks from Capitol Hill

What types of conditions did Malcolm X describe in the black neighbourhoods near the White House?

Dirt-floor shacks, filthy alleys, crime, children begging barefoot at midnight

What does this reveal about the lives of some African-Americans in Northern cities during the Truman years?

They often lived in extreme poverty, despite being far from the segregated South

What was the Nation of Islam?

A religious and social movement founded to improve conditions for African-Americans

Who led the Nation of Islam from 1934?

Elijah Muhammed

What were some teachings of the Nation of Islam?

Original men were black, whites created by evil scientist Yakub, self-reliance and sobriety

What did the Nation of Islam encourage its members to do economically?

Shop only in black-owned stores

What contributed to the rise of black populations in Northern cities?

The Great Migration

What were some factors that caused the Great Migration?

Fear of the KKK, mechanisation of agriculture, the Great Depression, factory jobs in the North

How many African-Americans moved North during the 1940s and 1950s?

1.4 million in the 1940s and 1.1 million in the 1950s

What type of segregation existed in the North if not Jim Crow Laws?

Economic segregation, social pressure, and ghettoisation

What is ghettoisation?

Concentration of one ethnic group in an area, often with declining services

What was the role of the Ku Klux Klan during this period?

They used violence and intimidation to promote racial purity

Who was Malcolm X?

An African-American activist and minister in the Nation of Islam, later assassinated in 1965

What made Malcolm X nationally infamous in 1959?

His appearance in the documentary The Hate that Hate Produced

What was Malcolm X's attitude toward white people, as seen in the documentary?

He espoused a confrontational attitude

Where did most African-Americans live after moving North in the 1940s?

In cramped apartments in city centres with high rents.

Why were landlords able to neglect their properties in black neighbourhoods?

Because demand always exceeded supply.

What prevented African-Americans from moving to the suburbs?

Restricted covenants and de facto segregation by estate agents (realtors).

What were the benefits of African-American concentration in Northern cities?

It increased political influence and made it easier to organise civil rights groups.

Which African-American politicians gained office due to urban black political power?

William L. Dawson in Chicago and Adam Clayton Powell in Harlem.

Which major civil rights organisations grew during and after WWII?

NAACP, CORE, the Urban League, and the Nation of Islam.

What kind of jobs were available to African-Americans in the North?

Often poorly paid jobs, except in industries like automobile manufacturing around Detroit.

Which African-Americans gained fame in sports during this time?

Jackie Robinson (baseball MVP by 1949) and Joe Louis (World Heavyweight Boxing champion).

Which African-Americans were prominent in Northern music scenes?

Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis, Charlie Parker, and Billie Holiday.

What was the relationship like between black communities and the police in the North?

Tense, with police often resorting to violence and a harsher justice system for black defendants.

What was President Truman's view on prejudice and discrimination in June 1947?

We can no longer afford a leisurely attack on prejudice; the national government must lead with improved federal laws and tools.

Which civil rights groups focused their efforts in the North after WWII?

The Urban League and the Nation of Islam.

Which civil rights groups found success in the Southern states post-WWII?

CORE and the NAACP.

What was the 'Journey of Reconciliation' in April 1947?

A two-week bus trip by black and white men through Southern states to challenge segregation in interstate travel.

What was the NAACP's main strategy against segregation during the Truman years?

Challenging segregation through the courts, especially undermining Plessy v. Ferguson.

What did the Supreme Court rule in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)?

'Separate but equal' facilities were acceptable, legitimising segregation and Jim Crow laws.

When was the NAACP Legal Defence Fund established?

1939

Who were the key black lawyers hired by the NAACP?

Robert Carter, Charles Hamilton Houston, and Thurgood Marshall.

What was the significance of Smith v. Allwright (1944)?

Allowed African-Americans in Texas to vote in primaries.

What did Morgan v. Virginia (1946) rule?

Segregation on interstate buses was illegal.

What did Shelley v. Kramer (1948) decide regarding housing?

Estate agents could not refuse to sell houses to black clients despite restrictive covenants.

What was the ruling in Henderson v. US (1950) about railway dining cars?

Segregation in railway dining cars was illegal.

What happened in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State (1950)?

Allowed a black student to enter university but kept segregated from other students.

What was the outcome of Sweatt v. Painter (1950)?

'Separate but equal' black law school was not equal to the white law school, challenging educational segregation.

Which landmark case was first argued at the end of Truman's presidency?

Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which desegregated public schools.

Who was Thurgood Marshall?

NAACP lawyer who won key Supreme Court cases including Brown v. Board and later became a Supreme Court Justice.

What was Truman's background and expectations on civil rights

He came from Missouri, a former slave state where Jim Crow Laws were still enforced, so campaigners expected little from him on civil rights.

What did Truman declare in his 1940 speech in Sedalia, Missouri

He declared belief in the 'brotherhood' of black and white men before the law.

How did Truman react to the treatment of black soldiers returning from WWII

He was horrified by beatings and discrimination, like soldiers being thrown out of trucks and beaten in Mississippi.

What committee did Truman establish in 1946

The President's Committee on Civil Rights.

What was the aim of the President's Committee on Civil Rights

To make the Bill of Rights a reality by addressing civil rights issues.

What was the title of the 1947 report by the President's Committee on Civil Rights

'To Secure These Rights.'

Which areas of discrimination were highlighted in the 'To Secure These Rights' report

Education, housing, public facilities, and voting rights, especially in the South.

What proposals did Truman ask Congress to support in his 1948 civil rights speech

Federal protection against lynching, protection of the right to vote, and a permanent and better funded FEPC.

Why were Truman's 1948 civil rights proposals politically risky

Many Dixiecrat congressmen opposed them, dividing the Democratic Party and contributing to Truman's narrow election victory.

Who were some southern politicians opposing civil rights during Truman's presidency

James O Eastland, Strom Thurmond, Fielding L Wright, and Herman Talmadge.

Why did southern politicians oppose civil rights

To maintain segregation popular with their voters, and to defend states' rights against federal interference.

What is the Bill of Rights

The first ten Amendments of the US Constitution outlining the rights of all Americans.

How did the Republican Party respond to the Civil Rights Movement in the early 1950s

They largely ignored it, and Eisenhower barely mentioned civil rights in his 1952 campaign.

Why did segregation in the US pose a problem internationally during Truman's presidency

It damaged the US's global reputation and risked alienating newly independent nations in Africa and Asia.

Why was the collapse of European empires important to US civil rights policy

Newly independent countries from Africa and Asia were gaining influence at the UN and could be swayed by the USSR if the US appeared racist.

Why did Truman view civil rights as more than a domestic issue

Because segregation and racial violence in the South made the US look hypocritical on the world stage, especially during the Cold War.