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How many Kcals of energy do carbohydrates have?
4 kcals/g
Define carbohydrates that underwent processing
Refined
Define carbohydrates that remain in its natural state
Unrefined
What are empty calories?
Food or beverages that provide minimal vitamins and minerals (low nutrient density)
What % of calories does the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend should come from added sugars?
Less than 10%
How many grams are in 1 teaspoon?
4 grams
What daily % value is consider high?
Any value >20%
How many parts of grain kernel do whole grain food have present?
Three
What are the parts of the grain kernel in whole grain foods called?
Endosperm
Bran
Germ
Endosperm
Largest portion of a grain kernel
Contains starch & protein
Some vitamins and minerals
Bran
Outermost layer
Concentrated source of dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals
Germ
Kernal base
Embryo where sprouting takes place
Source of vegetable oils and vitamin E
Define “Enriched”
Adding nutrients to a product after it was lost during processing
Simple carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Complex carbohydrates
Glycogen
Starch & fiber
Oligosaccharides
Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Glucose (provides energy for the body)
Galactose (component of actose)
Fructose (fruit sugar/taste sweeter compared to glucose)
Simple carbohydrates: Disaccharides
Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)
Sucrose (table sugar; Glucose + Fructose)
Lactose (milk sugar; Glucose + Galactose)
Complex Carbohydrates
Oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharides), not digested by enzymes in the digestive tract.
Nutrient source for bacteria in the gut
What are starches?
The storage form of carbohydrates in plants
Amylopectin
Highly branched
Readily broken down by enzymes
What is the storage form of carbohydrate in animals comprised of highly branched chains of glucose molecules
Glycogen
Where is glycogen stored?
The muscle and liver
Impact of carb loading
Increases endurance
Delays fatigue
Enhances recovery
Where is Dietary fiber found?
Intact in plants
Functional fiber
Beneficial physiological effects
Examples of soluble fiber
Pectins
Gums
Some hemicelluoses
Characteristics of soluble fiber
Dissolve in water or absorb water to form viscous solutions
Broken down by the intestinal microflora
May lower blood cholesterol
Examples of insoluble fiber
Cellulose
Some hemicellulose
Lignin
Insoluble fiber characteristics
Opposite of soluble fiber
Cell wall in plants
Wheat and Rye bran
Application of Pectin in food
Thickening agent
Application of Xanthan & Locust Bean Gum in food
Prevents solutions from separating (Gravies, pudding, reduced-far salad dressing)
Application of wheat bran in food
Reduce caloric content of foods
What breaks apart starch into smaller carbohydrates?
Pancreatic Amylase
Step 1 of carb breakdown in small intestine:
Pancreatic amylase breaks apart starch into smaller carbohydrates
Step 2 of Carbo breakdown in small intestine
Enzyme action to break apart double sugars and short glucose chains
Step 3 of carb breakdown in the small intestine
End products of carbohydrate digestion are simple sugars
They travel through the blood vessel to enter the body
Starch is broken down into shorter polysaccharides
No starch digestion occurs
Breaks down starch to disaccharides and oligosaccharides
Disaccharides and oligosaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by enzymes
Remaining is excreted in the feces
Steps of carbohydrate digestion
Galactose and Glucose
Lactase
Lactose intolerance
Affects between 30-50 million adults
Undigested lactose —> Large intestine
Lactase is available in minimal amounts
What do foods with added calcium help?
They help meet dietary needs for lactose intolerance individuals
Indigestible carbohydrates
Fiber
Oligosaccharides
Resistant Starch
Health benefits of indigestible carbohydrates
Increase the amount of water or bulk in intestine
Stimulate GI motility
Promotes growth of healthy microflora
Slows nutrient absorption
Dilutes the gastrointestinal tract contents resulting in delayed digestion and absorption
Fiber
Storage form of carbohydrates in animals and humans
Glycogen
Glycogen is broken down to generate…
Glucose
Advantage of more branching in glycogen
More areas for enzymes to bind to
Glucose, fructose, and galactose travel to the liver through…
Hepatic portal vein
Galactose and fructose are metabolized for…
energy
Glucose is stored as…
glycogen
Glycemic response
rate, magnitude, and duration of the rise in blood glucose that occurs after a particular food or meal is consumed
High glycemic index food
> 70
Low Glycemic index food
< 55
Index of glycemic response that occurs after consuming certain foods
Glycemic Load
Glycemic Load
Glycemic index x grams carbohydrate per serving
High Glycemic load score
20 or more
Low Glycemic load score
11 or less
Facilitates the uptake and storage of glucose into the muscle, liver, and fat-storing cells
Insulin
Released in response to low blood glucose levels
Glucagon
C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Cellular respiration
The breakdown of glucose in half into two pyruvate molecules
Glycolysis (step 1 of cellular respiration)
Low potential energy
Carbon dioxide
High potential energy
A carbohydrate
The only place that anerobic metabolism takes place
Cytoplasm
occurs in the Mitochondria of the cell
Acetyl CoA formation (second step of cellular respiration)
How many CO2 are produced at the end of the citric acid cycle
4 CO2
How many Electrons are produced at the end of the citric acid cycle
2 ATP
The last stage of cellular respiration
The electron transport chain
Aerobic metabolism
Occurs in the mitochondria
End of electron transport chain ATP
~30 glucose
Muscle contraction during running
Repair body tissues
Adenosine triphosphate
Every 1 glucose produces how many ATP?
30
ATP contains how many phosphate groups?
3
Forms when a phosphate group and its high energy bond is released during muscle contractions
ADP & AMP
Confusion, Seizures, and ultimately coma
low levels of glucose
Glycogen is broken down into…
Glucose
Production of new glucose from
Amino acids
Bodys protein is broken down to form
Glucose
Glucogenic amino acids can be used to make glucose when…
Carbohydrate is limited
Where does Gluconeogenesis occur?
In the liver or kidney cells
The body lacks carbohydrate to make oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle
Ketone body formation
Autoimmune: Immune system destroys the cells that make insulin
Type I diabetes
Insulin resistance (cells do not respond to insulin) —> limited glucose enters cells
Type II diabetes
Pregnancy, hormonal changes
Gestational diabetes
Diabetes: Fasting blood glucose
> 126 mg/ml
Prediabetes: Fasting blood glucose
100-125 mg/100 ml
Normal: fasting blood glucose
< 100 mg/100ml
Exercising
> 30 minutes per day beneficial for the action of insulin
Occurs when diabetics over medicate, imbalance between insulin level and carbohydrate intake
Hypoglycemia
Occurs in response to high carbohydrate foods
Rise in blood glucose stimulates overproduction and release of insulin
Glucose drops rapidly to abnormally low levels
Reactive Hypoglycemia
Abnormal insulin secretion not related to food intake
Related to hormonal deficiencies, tumors, and excess alcohol intake
Fasting Hypoglycemia
Produces acids readily
Sucrose
Pouches develop on the wall of the intestines due to excessive pressure
Accumulation of fecal matter in the pouches
Diverticulosis
Inflammation occurring in the pouches of the small intestine
Diverticulitis
Diets high in sugar may raise blood lipid levels and…
Increase heart disease risk
Diets high in whole grains have been found to…
reduce risk of heart disease
FODMAPS
Group of carbohydrates that may cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as gas, bloating, and diarrhea
Lactose
Oligosaccharides
Polyols (sugar alcohols)
Fructose
FODMAPs
Bloating and gas caused by FODMAPs because…
They reach the large intestine undigested and draw in more water which is utilized by the bacteria that reside in the large intestine
Minimum amount required to provide adequate glucose for the brain
RDA: 130 grams/day for adults & children
No more than 25% of energy should come from added reined sugars
AMDR: 45-65