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Louis XVI

King of France during the French Revolution; ruled 1774-1792. His indecision and failure to reform taxes led to loss of authority, and he was executed in 1793, symbolizing the end of absolute monarchy.

Marie Antoinette

Queen of France and wife of Louis XVI; Austrian-born and unpopular. Seen as extravagant and disconnected from common people, contributing to anti-monarch sentiment.

Jacques Necker

Finance minister under Louis XVI in the 1780s. Published misleading financial reports that hid France's debt, delaying reform and worsening the financial crisis.

Abbé Sieyès

Clergyman and political thinker during the early Revolution. Author of What Is the Third Estate?, which argued that the Third Estate represented the nation and justified political revolution.

Marquis de Lafayette

French noble and military officer involved in the American and French Revolutions. Supported constitutional monarchy and helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

Maximilien Robespierre

Leader of the Jacobins and Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror (1793-94). Believed terror was necessary to protect the republic and revolutionary virtue.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French general born in Corsica (1769) who rose during the Revolutionary Wars. Took power in 1799 and later became emperor, spreading revolutionary reforms while ruling authoritarianly.

Josephine Bonaparte

Napoleon's first wife and empress of France. Important socially and politically, but divorced due to inability to produce an heir.

Horatio Nelson

British naval commander who defeated Napoleon's fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805). Secured British naval dominance and prevented French invasion of Britain.

Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand

French diplomat who served under multiple regimes. Helped negotiate at the Congress of Vienna and preserve France's status after Napoleon's defeat.

Joseph Bonaparte

Napoleon's brother installed as king of Spain. His rule helped spark the Peninsular War and resistance against French control.

Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wellington)

British general who defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Played a key role in ending the Napoleonic Wars.

Marie-Louise

Second wife of Napoleon and daughter of the Austrian emperor. Their marriage strengthened ties with Austria and produced Napoleon's heir.

June 17, 1789

The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly. Marked the beginning of the French Revolution and the claim of popular sovereignty.

July 14, 1789

Storming of the Bastille in Paris. Became a symbol of revolution and the collapse of royal authority.

August 4, 1789

Abolition of feudal privileges by the National Assembly. Ended feudalism and noble rights.

September 21, 1792

France declared a republic. Official end of the monarchy.

January 21, 1793

Execution of Louis XVI. Radicalized the Revolution and led to foreign wars.

July 27, 1794

Fall of Robespierre (Thermidorian Reaction). Ended the Reign of Terror.

November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire)

Napoleon's coup d'état overthrew the Directory. Beginning of Napoleonic rule.

Battle of the Nile (1798)

British naval victory over Napoleon in Egypt. Cut off French supplies and weakened his campaign.

19th Brumaire

Napoleon's 1799 coup against the Directory. Established the Consulate and ended the revolutionary government.

Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

British naval victory led by Nelson. Ensured British naval supremacy.

Battle of Austerlitz (1805)

Napoleon's greatest land victory over Austria and Russia. Strengthened his empire.

Peninsular War (1808-1814)

Guerrilla war in Spain and Portugal against French occupation. Drained French resources and weakened Napoleon.

Russian Campaign (1812)

Failed invasion of Russia by Napoleon. Massive losses marked the beginning of his downfall.

Battle of the Nations (Leipzig, 1813)

Coalition victory over Napoleon (Austria, Russia, Prussia). Forced his abdication.

Treaty of Paris (1814)

Ended Napoleon's rule and exiled him to Elba. Restored Bourbon monarchy.

Exile to Elba

Napoleon's first exile in 1814. He later escaped.

The Hundred Days

Napoleon's return to power in 1815. Ended with defeat at Waterloo.

Battle of Waterloo (1815)

Final defeat of Napoleon by Wellington and allies. Ended Napoleonic Wars.

Exile to St. Helena

Napoleon's final exile after Waterloo. Died there in 1821.

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Meeting of European powers to restore balance of power. Aimed to prevent future revolutions.

Treaty of Paris (1815)

Final peace treaty after Waterloo. Reduced France's borders and imposed penalties.

Estates-General

Representative assembly of the three estates. Its meeting in 1789 triggered the Revolution.

National Assembly

Revolutionary government formed by the Third Estate. Claimed to represent the nation.

Tennis Court Oath

1789 vow by the National Assembly to write a constitution. Showed unity against royal authority.

Great Fear - french countryside

Wave of peasant revolts in 1789. Accelerated abolition of feudalism.

Sans-culottes

Urban working-class radicals. Pushed for economic equality and direct democracy.

Jacobins

Radical revolutionary political club. Led the Reign of Terror.

Girondins

Moderate revolutionary faction. Opposed radical violence and were purged during the Terror.

Assignats

Paper money backed by church lands. Led to inflation.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Law placing the Church under state control. Caused religious division.

Levée en masse

Mass conscription during the Revolution. Created the first modern national army.

Committee of Public Safety

Revolutionary executive body during the Terror. Exercised dictatorial power.

Reign of Terror

Period of mass executions (1793-94). Used violence to protect the revolution.

Law of 22 Prairial

Law that sped up executions during the Terror. Reduced legal rights.

Thermidorian Reaction

Overthrow of Robespierre in 1794. Ended the Terror.

Directory

Five-man executive government (1795-1799). Weak and corrupt.

Consulate

Government after Napoleon's coup. Concentrated power in Napoleon's hands.

Concordat

1801 agreement between Napoleon and the Pope. Restored Church influence under state control.

Napoleonic Code

Legal code establishing equality before the law. Preserved revolutionary reforms but limited freedoms.

Continental System

Economic blockade against Britain. Harmed European economies and caused resistance.

Black Death

A plague that killed about one-third of Europe's population in the 14th century. Weakened feudalism and contributed to social and economic change leading into the Renaissance.

Hundred Years' War

A long conflict (1337-1453) between England and France over territory and monarchy. Strengthened national identities and weakened feudal nobles.

Avignon Papacy

Period when the pope lived in Avignon instead of Rome (1309-1377). Damaged Church authority and led to criticism of corruption.

Great Western Schism

Division in the Catholic Church when multiple popes claimed authority. Further weakened Church unity and credibility.

Fall of Constantinople (1453)

Ottoman capture of Constantinople. Ended the Byzantine Empire and helped spread Greek knowledge to Western Europe.

Discovery of the New World

European exploration of the Americas beginning in 1492. Expanded trade, wealth, and European global influence.

Martin Luther

German monk who challenged Catholic practices. Founded Protestantism.

John Calvin

Protestant reformer who emphasized predestination. Influenced Reformed churches.

Henry VIII

King of England who broke from the Catholic Church. Created the Anglican Church.

Ignatius of Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits. Led Catholic Counter-Reformation.

Henry of Navarre

French king who converted to Catholicism to rule France. Issued Edict of Nantes.

Albrecht Wallenstein

Military leader in the Thirty Years' War. Fought for the Holy Roman Emperor.

Posting of the 95 Theses (1517)

Martin Luther's criticism of indulgences posted in Wittenberg. Sparked the Protestant Reformation.

Diet of Worms (1521)

Imperial meeting where Luther refused to recant his beliefs. Marked his break from the Catholic Church.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Agreement allowing German rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism. Reduced religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire.

Act of Supremacy (1534)

Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England. Separated England from the Catholic Church.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

Mass killing of French Protestants (Huguenots). Demonstrated extreme religious violence.

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

Major European religious and political war. Devastated Central Europe.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Treaties ending the Thirty Years' War. Established state sovereignty and modern international relations.

The Fronde

Series of revolts against royal authority in France. Convinced Louis XIV to strengthen absolutism.

English Civil War

Conflict between King Charles I and Parliament. Led to execution of the king and temporary republic.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

Bloodless overthrow of James II. Established constitutional monarchy in England.

Development of Print Culture & Public Opinion

Spread of books, pamphlets, and newspapers. Allowed ideas to circulate rapidly and shape public debate.

Cosimo de Medici

Florentine banker and patron of the arts. Helped fund Renaissance culture.

Petrarch

Humanist scholar known as the "Father of Humanism." Emphasized classical learning.

Leonardo da Vinci

Renaissance artist and inventor. Embodied Renaissance ideals of human potential.

Erasmus

Christian humanist who criticized Church corruption. Supported reform through education.

Machiavelli

Political thinker who wrote The Prince. Argued rulers should use power pragmatically.

Louis XIV

Absolute monarch of France. Centralized power and ruled by divine right.

William & Mary

Rulers after the Glorious Revolution. Accepted limits on royal power.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of Parliamentarian forces. Ruled England as a military dictator.

René Descartes

Philosopher who promoted rationalism. "I think, therefore I am."

Denis Diderot

Editor of the Encyclopedia. Spread Enlightenment ideas.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Political philosopher who argued sovereignty belongs to the people.

John Locke

Philosopher of natural rights. Influenced democratic thought.

Blaise Pascal

Religious philosopher who emphasized faith and human weakness.

Jonathan Swift

Satirist who criticized society and politics. Wrote A Modest Proposal.

Voltaire

Enlightenment thinker who supported free speech and religious tolerance.

Humanism

Focus on classical learning and human potential.

Linear Perspective

Art technique creating realistic depth.

CHAIRS

Checklist for identifying Renaissance art (Classical, Humanism, Individualism, Realism, Secularism).

Predestination

Belief that God has predetermined salvation.

Elizabethan Settlement

Religious compromise establishing Anglicanism.

Huguenots

French Protestants.

Absolutism

System where monarch holds total power.

Divine Right of Kings

Belief that monarchs rule by God's will.

Natural Philosophy

Early scientific study of nature.