Caregiver-Infant Interactions + Role of the Father

2 different definitions of attachment?

Schaffer (1993) - Close emotional relationship between 2 persons, characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity.

Maccoby (1980) - 4 characteristics

Seeking proximity

Separation Anxiety

Pleasure when reunited

General orientation of behaviour towards the caregiver

Definition of caregiver-infant interactions?

The way parents and babies communicate with each other.

interactions are important for child’s social development and development between caregiver and infant

Definition of reciprocity?

TURNTAKING - idea that mother and child are involved in a two-way communication. Both are active contributors, able to elicit a response from the other. Flows both ways between adult and infant like a non verbal communication 

Study to support Reciprocity? Meltzoff + Moore (1977)

aimed to investigate age at which imitation occurs in a child. Videotaped 6 to 21 day old babies, who watched adults perform different facial expressions. Adult displayed one of 3 facial expressions or one gesture. baby’s response to gestures were observed and actions were recorded. Independent observer was asked to note all instances of tongue protrusion and head movement using behavioural categories. Scored the recordings 2 for inter-rater reliability. 

results showed that babies as young as 2 weeks could imitate expressions and gestures. ability to imitate serves as important building block for later social and cognitive development. believed that babies are deliberate in their attempt to imitate(a style of reciprocity) 

Definition of interactional synchrony?

TOGETHERNESS - coordinates movements and gestures in time with adult speech. If mother speaks, baby responds at same time. sustained communication. babies cant talk so they move with the rhythm of interaction as if they are one person.

Study to support Interactional synchrony? Isabella

believed caregiver-baby pairs that developed secure attachment relationships would display more interactional synchrony than babies with insecure relationships.
30 babies + mothers, observed at 3-9 months.

secure relationship = interacted well timed, reciprocal and mutually rewarding manner.

insecure = minimal interaction, unresponsive and intrusive.

different interactional behaviours predicted attachment quality

Study to support Interactional synchrony? Tronick (1975)

The still face experiment - mother engaged with child, then suddenly stops. Child shows serious distress, turns away and cries. Make deliberate and extreme attempts to lure mom back into interaction

suggests child is an active and intentional partner in the communication

Why are moms and dads so different? Nature + Nurture debate

Nature - genetics and biology, men have lots of testosterone, making them more aggressive, encourages more provider behaviour. ladies have oestrogen, encourages more caring and empathetic behaviour. 

Nurture - way we are brought up, gender stereotypes, expectations of how men + women are supposed to act. Boys = more boisterous + play, Girls = play with dolls and more affectionate from a very early age.

Study on the biological argument about the role of the father? Hardy (1999)

fathers less able to detect low levels of infant distress in comparison to mothers.

supports lack of oestrogen, not equipped with right hormones to form close relationships with children.

Role of the father is biologically determined

Women have body parts = equipped to form an attachment.

Breasts = more natural opportunity to have skin to skin contact (breast feeding)

increased levels of hormones = encourage attachment behaviours

e.g. oxytocin (love hormone) connection between mother and child.

Study on the biological argument about the role of the father? Schaffer and Emerson (1964) 

Glasgow babies - infants form their primary attachment at 7 months, usually with mom

secondary attachments are with other key figures, e.g. dad, form afterwards

3% of cases fathers were primary attachment, 65% mothers was. 

by the age of 1 most children had formed secondary attachment to other family members, mother is more likely to be a primary attachment figure than the father but fathers will become attached to. 

Study on the biological argument about the role of the father? Grossman (2002)

Longitudinal study, 44 families, comparing roles of fathers and mothers to children’s attachments at 6,10 and 16

found that quality of mother child attachment was important when assessing quality of attachment into adolescence. Better predictor of child’s future attachments and relationships.

if child had a good attachment with mother - form good attachments in future.
called internal working model, acts as a template for future relationships.
NOT THE CASE FOR FATHER-CHILD ATTACHMENT, not a good predictor. Role of the father is less important

What is the fathers argument as a playmate?

quality of gathers play with infants = quality of attachment in adolescence

fathers are not necessarily less important but have different role in attachment, play rather than nurturing

Important role in developing play behaviour, widely seen as crucial in cognitive development

Study to support the father as a nurturing caregiver? Field (1978)

compared behaviours of primary caretaker mothers with primary and secondary caretaker fathers

face to face interactions analysed from video footage at 4 years old infants

Primary caregiver fathers focused more on attachment building behaviours

behaviours of primary caregiver fathers = sensitive responsiveness - mostly shown in mothers. 

Discredits biological argument - evidence suggests that males are capable of taking a nurturing approach 

What are the 3 economic implications of the role of the father?

Impact on employment laws and policy - changes in paternity laws, shared parental leave, only 2 weeks before but more now, employers now need to provide pay for the fathers whilst they are off work

Shared parental leave - whilst it reduces males in workforce, allows mothers to take less leave and return to work, equal opportunities

parents can divide leave so each works part time - less cover issues in some workforces, levels gender pay gap - seek more equality in workplace and childcare