A&P Lab- Unit 1 cardiovascular

Blood

Plasma

– Water– Proteins– Solutes

• Formed Elements– Red Cells – White cells– Platelets

fluid connective tissue

functions: transportation, regulation, and protection

Hematocrit

percentage of erythrocytes in whole blood

– Adult females

• 38-46%

– Adult males

• 40-54%

The difference is primarily due to hormones, especially testosterone, which stimulates red blood cell production, while estrogen tends to suppress it. Men also have greater muscle mass and oxygen demand, and women experience menstrual blood loss

Blood volume

5 to 6 liters (1.3- 1.56 gallons) in average male

– 4 to 5 liters in average female

Erythrocytes

Functions

• Carries– Oxygen– Carbon dioxide– Nitric oxide

• Local vasodilator

Formed elements of blood

the cellular components of blood, they’re called this because they are actual cells or cell fragments, as opposed to plasma, which is the fluid portion.

-Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

• White blood cells (leukocytes)

– Granular Leukocytes (nucleus looks segmented) • Neutrophils • Eosinophils • Basophils

– Agranular (nucleus is whole) Leukocytes • Lymphocytes • Monocytes • Platelets

45% of whole blood

Basophil

dark blue/purple granules

• S-shaped, bilobed nuclei

• 8 to 10 microns

<1%

High in allergic reaction or hypothyroidism

• Leave capillaries

– Enter connective tissue as mast cells

• Release heparin, histamine & serotonin

– Heighten inflammatory response

• Low count indicates Pregnancy, Ovulation, Stress, or Hyperthyroidism

Neutrophil

pale pink, lilac, or light purple granules

Fights bacteria

• Present

– Infections-first on site

– Burns

-Stress

Small lymphocyte

Agranular

• Round nucleus

• Small cells 6 - 9 microns

• Large cells 10 - 14 microns

– increase in number during viral infections

• 20 to 25% of circulating WBCs

Functions:

B cells

– destroy bacteria and their toxins

– turn into plasma cells that produces antibodies

• T cells

– attack viruses, fungi, transplanted organs, cancer cells & some bacteria

• Natural killer cells

– attack many different microbes & some tumor cells

– destroy foreign invaders by direct attack

Monocyte

Agranular

• Nucleus kidney or horse-shoe shaped

• Largest WBC

• Diameter is 12 - 20 microns

• 3 to 8% of circulating WBC

Functions:

Viral or fungal infections

• Migrate to infected tissues

– Differentiate into macrophages

• Fixed in some tissues– Lungs, lymph nodes

• Destroy microbes and clean up dead tissue

Anemia

insufficient oxygen carrying capacity of blood

-formation, destruction, loss

• low RBCs or hemoglobin

Symptoms– fatigue, cold intolerance & paleness

Normal counts

In order of abundance:

• Neutrophils 60-70%

-High in bacterial infection

• Lymphocyte 20-25%

-High in viral infection

• Monocytes 3 -- 8 %

-High in fungal/viral infection

• Eosinophil 2 -- 4 %

-High in parasitic or allergic reactions

• Basophil <1% High in allergic reaction or hypothyroidism

Nicely (Never) Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

Polycythemia

too many red blood cells (over 65%)

means your blood is too thick, increasing risks of blood clots, heart attack, or stroke. Causes include dehydration, tissue apoxia, blood doping in athletes

Leukocytosis

too many leukocytes

usually means your immune system is responding to infection, inflammation, stress, or medications

thrombocytosis

a condition where the body produces excess platelets, causing the blood to become too sticky. It often causes no symptoms but can lead to dangerous, life-threatening blood clots, strokes, or bleeding

Neutrophilia

too many neutrophils

a sign that your body is fighting infection, inflammation, stress, or injury. Common causes include bacterial infections, injury, smoking, and medication side effects

Lymphocytosis

too many lymphocytes

often indicating an immune response to viral infections, or chronic inflammatory conditions

Monocytosis

high monocytes

indicates your immune system is active, often due to chronic infections, inflammation, autoimmune diseases, or cancer

high in fungal/viral infection

eosinophilia

high eosinophils

often signaling allergies, infections (parasitic/fungal), autoimmune diseases, or blood disorders.

basophilia

high basophils

often indicate that your immune system is responding to an allergen, infection, or chronic inflammation.

Pernicious anemia

an autoimmune condition where the body cannot properly absorb vitamin B12 due to a lack of "intrinsic factor" in the stomach, leading to decreased, malfunctioning red blood cells

Buffy coat

a thin, pale-colored (whitish-tan) layer containing concentrated white blood cells and platelets that forms between the plasma and red blood cells when anticoagulated blood is centrifuged.

< 1% of whole blood. Leukocytes and platelets

Plasma

55% of whole blood

Plasma 90% water

o   8% plasma proteins

2% other substances - organic nutrients, electrolytes, gases, hormones etc

Plasma Proteins

produced by the liver

·       Albumin

o   60% of plasma proteins – oncotic pressure

·       Fibrinogen

o   4% of plasma proteins - blood clotting or coagulation

·       Globulin

o   36% of plasma proteins -

o   alpha - transport proteins; and beta - antibodies

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

contains hemoglobin – transports gases

·       life span 100-120 days

·       45% of blood

Leukocytes (white blood cells)

Granulocytes and agranulocytes

Lymphocytes

agranular (lack visible cytoplasmic granules)

Round nucleus

• Small cells 6 - 9 microns

• Large cells 10 - 14 microns

– increase in number during viral infections

About 25% of the WBCs

T lymphocytes (T cells) - immune response

B lymphocytes (B cells) - produce antibodies

Monocytes

agranular (lack visible cytoplasmic granules)

3-8% of the WBCs

Nucleus kidney or horse-shoe shaped

• Largest WBC

Migrate to infected tissues– Differentiate into macrophage

• differentiate into phagocytes

o   Viruses/fungal

o   Intracellular bacterial parasites

Chronic infections (tuberculosis)

Fixed in some tissues

– Lungs, lymph nodes

• Destroy microbes and clean up dead tissue

Low count indicates Bone Marrow Suppression, Treatment with Cortisol

Neutrophils

granular (Neutral-staining cytoplasmic granules)

50-70% of the WBCs

phagocytize bacteria

High in bacterial infection

• Low indicates Radiation Exposure, Drug Toxicity, B12 Deficiency, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Nuclei 2 to 5 lobes

• Older cells more lobes

• Young cells – Horseshoe shaped nucleus (band)

• Fine, pale lilac granules

• 10-12 microns

Present

– Infections-first on site

– Burns

– Stress

Eosinophils

granular (acidic-staining cytoplasmic granules)

2-4% of the WBCs. High in allergies

Nucleus 2 or 3 lobes connected by thin strand

·       Kill parasitic worms

·       Phagocytize/destory antigen-antibody complexes

·       Inactivate certain inflammatory chemicals

Release histaminase

–Slows down inflammation caused by basophils

• Large, orange-red granules

• 10 to 12 microns

Low count indicates Drug toxicity, Stress

Basophils

 granular (Basic-staining cytoplasmic granules)

0.5-1% of the WBCs

Release histamine, heparin, and serotonin

Raised in inflammations

Platelets

blood clotting

Thrombocytopenia

low platelet count

often causing easy bruising, tiny red/purple skin spots (petechiae), nosebleeds, and bleeding gums. It is caused by reduced bone marrow production, increased destruction, or splenic trapping.

Plasma vs serum

• Plasma is the liquid part of blood with clotting factors still present (including fibrinogen).

• Serum is the liquid part of blood after clotting has occurred, so clotting factors are removed/used up.

Polycythemia

Excess RBCs (over 65%)

– Dehydration, tissue hypoxia, blood doping in athlete

Iron-deficiency anemia/microcytic anemia

Inadequate absorption or loss of iron

Hemorrhagic anemia

Loss of RBCs due to bleeding

Hemolytic anemia

Inherited, defects in cell membranes cause rupture

-include sickle cell and thalassemia

Thalassemia anemia

Hereditary deficiency of hemoglobin

aplastic anemia

Destruction of bone marrow (radiation/toxins)

sickle-cell anemia

Genetic defect

– Abnormal hemoglobin

– Very low O2

• RBC deformed by changes in hemoglobin

– Sickle-shaped cells rupture easily

Megaloblastic anemia

folate deficiency

Blood crossmatching

test to determine/judge the compatibility between donor cells and recipient serum

Drop antisera A, B, D and recipient’s serum on clean palettes

• Drop the sample to be tested (donor blood) into each well

• Stir with different stirrers

• Observe after 60 seconds for agglutination

Agglutination

antigen-antibody rxns

blood clumps together w/ hazardous outcomes

Other antigens/factors that can affect blood incompatibility

Kelly factor

Coombs factor

Duffy factor

What are the 4 cavities the heart is located in?

-Pericardial

-Mediastinal

-Thoracic

-Ventral

Where is the apex of the heart located?

5th left intercostal space in the mid-clavicular line

Cardiac muscle

shape of fibers

• short, cylindrical, and branched cells (often X or Y-shaped) that connect end-to-end via specialized junctions called intercalated discs.

nuclei

• Each cell typically contains one or two centrally located, oval-shaped nuclei

Skeletal muscle

lack intercalated discs

relies on innervation for contraction and stores glycogen (approx. 1% of mass) as a primary fuel source for energy-intensive, fast-twitch, or slow-twitch muscle activity

Blood flow direction in the heart

moving from the body to the right side (deoxygenated), to the lungs, then to the left side (oxygenated), and finally out to the body. The cycle follows this path: superior or inferior vena cava —> right atrium —> tricuspid valve —>right ventricle —> pulmonary semilunar valve —→ pulmonary artery —> lungs —> pulmonary veins —> left atrium —> bicuspid (mitral valve) —→ Left ventricle —> aortic semilunar valve —> aorta

EKG-electrocardiogram

Graphic representation of the electrical events

•P wave – atrial  depolarization (blood intro ventricles)

•QRS complex – Ventricular depolarization (push blood out of body to lungs)

•T wave – ventricular repolarization (ventricles fill with blood, relaxing “reset” phase)

What of atrial repolarization? —> none, no wave on the EKG that represents this

Electrical events of the heart

SA (sinoatrial) node—> pacemaker of the heart

3 categories of arteries

BLOOD TYPING

Erythrocyte surface has ANTIGENS

• Two major types

– AB

– R

ABO GROUPING

Type A

– People with A Antigens

• Type B

– People with B Antigens

• Type AB

– People with A + B Antigens

• Type O

– People with neither Antigen

Antibodies

Make incompatible blood cells agglutinate

• They clump and rupture

People manufacture antibodies against the antigens that they don’t have.

• Type A makes

– Anti B

• Type B makes

– Anti A

• Type O makes

– Anti A and Anti B

• Type AB makes

–Neither

Transfusions

1. Donor’s antibodies don’t matter much.

They get diluted in the recipient’s bloodstream,
so they rarely cause a reaction.

2. Recipient’s antibodies do matter.

If the recipient’s antibodies recognize the donor’s antigens,
they will agglutinate (clump) the donor’s red blood cells.

Rh (rhesus factor)

Rh+ individuals

– Have Rh antigens on their red cells (No anti-D antibodies unless exposed)

– Most common

• Rh- individuals

– Have no Rh antigens (may produce anti-D if exposed to Rh+ blood)

– Have no Rh antibodies at first

If an Rh- individual receives Rh+ blood

– The first time no problem but

• Rh- person makes Rh antibodies

– The second time Rh antibodies will clump with Rh+ blood

Can be present (+ or D) or absent (- or d)

o   Rh+ can receive from both + and –

o   Rh– can ONLY receive ONLY from –

The heart

Location

• The sits in the ventral body cavity
  → specifically inside the thoracic cavity
  → inside the mediastinum (the central compartment of the thorax)

🔀 Double Pump System

The heart works as two pumps in one organ:

Right side of the heart

• Sends blood to the lungs

• This is the pulmonary circuit

Left side of the heart

• Sends blood to the body

• This is the systemic circuit

📍 Base of the heart

• The superior (top) portion

• Broad, flat region where the great vessels attach

• formed by the left atrium (about two-thirds) and a smaller portion of the right atrium

Apex of the heart

• The inferior (bottom) pointed tip

• Formed by the left ventricle

• Points down, forward, and to the left

Pericardium

Sac surrounds heart

• Layers

– Fibrous pericardium- thick

– Serous pericardium- thin

• Outer parietal layer

– Fused to fibrous pericardium

• Inner visceral layer (Epicardium)

– Attached to heart muscle

– Pericardial space between parietal and visceral layers

• Pericardial fluid inside

•Pericarditis

Epicardium

Visceral serous pericardium

Endocardium

Thin lining

Heart chambers

Four chambers

– 2 atria

– 2 ventricles

Atria

Receiving chambers

– Receive blood from

• Body

• Lungs

Right atrium

– Receives blood from the body

Right Atrial Structures

Interatrial septum (wall)

• partitions the atria

• Fossa ovalis

– remnant of the fetal foramen ovale

Left atrium

– Receives oxygenated blood from lungs

– Forms most of the base of the heart

Auricles

right and left

small, ear-shaped, muscular pouches projecting from the right and left atria of the heart

Ventricles

Main pumping chambers

– Receive blood from the atria

– Send it to the body and lungs

• Right Ventricle (Space)

– Sends blood to lungs

Left ventricle

– Sends blood to the body

– Forms the apex of heart

• Interventricular septum

– Wall between the ventricles

Major Vessels of the Heart

Arteries

– Carry blood away from the heart

• Veins

– Carry blood to the heart

• Do arteries carry oxygenated or deoxygenated blood?

Vena Cavas

Superior Vena cava

– Deoxygenated blood from upper body

• To Right ventricle

• Inferior Vena cava

– Deoxygenated blood from lower body

• To Right ventricle

• Opening of Cardiac Sinus

– Deoxygenated blood from the heart

Pulmonary Veins

carry

– Oxygenated blood from the lungs

– To the left atria

– Note –These veins carry oxygenated blood

Aorta

– Ascending aorta

– Arch of aorta

– Descending aorta

• Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle

– To the body

Valves

• Direct the flow of blood

– In one direction

– Between chambers and vessels

• Chordae tendineae

– Tendon-like cords

• Connect valve cusps and papillary muscles

• Papillary muscles

– Hold valve flaps

– Prevent flaps from flipping up or everting

AV Valves (atrioventricular)

Tricuspid valve

– Directs flow from right atria to right ventricle

• Bicuspid

– Directs flow from left atria to left ventricle

Pulmonary Semilunar Valve

Directs from from the right ventricle to the Pulmonary trunk

Aortic semilunar valve

Directs flow from the left ventricle to the Aorta

Trabeculae carnae

Structure of a blood vessel

The 3 tunics

oEpithelium

oMuscle

oConnective tissue

Antigen (agglutinogen)

Complex protein on surface of cells. Determines blood type

Antibody(agglutinin)

Immune proteins in serum. Fights against antigens

Antigen-antibody complexes

Agglutination (clumping) of blood due to incompatibility

Mediastinum

-this area is part of the thoracic cavity

- the heart is snugly enclosed within this area

Pericardium

-A doubled layered sac

Fibrous pericardium

·       loosely fitting superficial part of the sac

·       protects the heart

·       anchors it to surrounding structures

·       prevents overfilling

Serous pericardium

·       A slippery thin two layered membrane

o   parietal layer

lines the internal surface of the pericardium

o   visceral layer or epicardium

covers the external surface of the heart

Pericardial cavity

is between the parietal and visceral layers

 this area contains a film of serous fluid termed pericardial fluid

Atrioventricular/coronary sulcus

Interventricular sulcus

Myocardium

middle layer - cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle tissue responsible for heart contraction; thickest in the left ventricle.

Endocardium

simple squamous epithelium. Lines chambers and valves

Interatrial septum

o   Muscular partition between the two atria

Has the fossa ovalis (remnant of the fetal foramen ovale)

O-

universal RBC donor

can only receive from O-

O+

can donate to O+, A+, B+, AB+

can receive from O+ and O-

A-

can donate to A-, A+, AB-, AB+

can receive from A- and O-

A+

can donate to A+ and AB+

can receive from A+, A-, O+, O-

B-

can donate to B-, B+, AB-, AB+

can receive from B- and O-

B+

can donate to B+ and AB+

can receive from B+, B-, O+, and O-

AB-

can donate to AB- and AB+

can receive from AB-, A-, B-, and O-

AB+

can donate to AB+ only

can receive from everyone

Rhesus isoimmunization

a condition where an Rh-negative pregnant person’s immune system produces antibodies against Rh-positive fetal red blood cells. This mismatch, often triggered by a prior miscarriage, trauma, or pregnancy, can cause dangerous hemolytic disease of the fetus/newborn (HDN) in subsequent pregnancies. It is treated with Rho(D) immune globulin injections

Where is the heart located anatomically?

Between these four cavities: Pericardial, Mediastinal, Thoracic, and ventral

Layers of the Heart (from outermost → innermost)

1. Pericardium (the covering)

This is the protective sac around the heart.

a. Fibrous pericardium

• Tough, outer layer

• Anchors the heart in place

b. Serous pericardium

A thin, double‑layered membrane:

• Parietal layer — lines the inside of the fibrous pericardium

• Visceral layer (epicardium) — directly on the heart surface

Between these two is the pericardial cavity filled with serous fluid to reduce friction.

2. Myocardium

• The thick, muscular layer

• Responsible for contraction

• This is the layer that actually pumps blood

3. Endocardium

• Thin, smooth inner lining

• Lines the chambers and covers the valves

• Continuous with blood vessel endothelium

🌟 Ultra‑simple version

• Epicardium = outer layer

• Myocardium = muscle

• Endocardium = inner lining

And the pericardium is the protective sac around all of it.