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Acetylcholine (ACh)
Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory
action potential
very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon
all or none law
Either the neuron fires or it doesn't, and its action potentials are all the same size. They do so by varying the rate at which they fire action potentials
axon
long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands
dendrite
parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
Dopamine
Contributes to control of voluntary movement Dopamine circuits in medial forebrain bundle characterized as "reward pathway". Associated with Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia
Endorphins
Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects Play role in pain relief and response to stress
excitatory postsynaptic potential
positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials
GABA
Serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter, contributing to regulation of anxiety and sleep/arousal Valium and similar antianxiety drugs work at GABA synapses
glia
cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons
graded potential
they vary in size, and they increase or decrease the probability of a neural impulse in the receiving cell in proportion to the amount of voltage change
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials
lock and key
The system that characterizes that a specific neurotransmitter can bind only to receptor sites that its molecular structure will fit into
myelin sheath
insulating material that encases some axons
neuron
individual cell in the nervous system that receives, integrates, and transmits information
neurotransmitter
chemical that transmits information from one neuron to another
Norepinephrine
Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal. Associated with depression
postsynaptic potential (PSP)
voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane and act in which neurotransmitters bind to the receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron
presynaptic
the neuron that sends a signal across the syanptic cleft
receptor site
specifically "tuned" to recognize and respond to some neurotransmitters but not to others on the postsynaptic cell.
resting potential
stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive
reuptake
process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane
Serotonin
Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits
Soma
cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
synapse
junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
synaptic cleft
microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron.
synaptic vesicle
small sacs containing neurotransmitters within the terminal buttons
terminal button
small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands
brain
part of the central nervous system that fills the upper portion of the skull
central nervous system (CNS)
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
parasympathetic division
branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources
peripheral nervous system
nerves that lie outside of the brain and spinal cord
somatic nervous system
made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
spinal cord
connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system.
sympathetic division
branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies
auditory cortex
cortex associated with hearing
cerebellum
involved in the coordination of movement and is critical to the sense of equilibrium, or physical balance
cerebral cortex
convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum
cerebral hemispheres
are the right and left halves of the cerebrum
cerebrum
largest and most complex part of the human brain. It includes the brain areas that are responsible for our most complex mental activities, including learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness itself.
corpus callosum
is the major structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
CT (computerized tomography) scan
computer-enhanced X-ray of brain structure. Multiple X-rays are shot from many angles, and the computer combines the readings to create a vivid image of a horizontal slice of the brain
Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
involves sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it
forebrain
largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
frontal lobe
the largest lobe in the human brain. It contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles, the primary motor cortex.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
consists of several new variations on MRI technology that monitor blood flow and oxygen consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity
hindbrain
includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons
hippocampus
responsible for the consolidation of memories for factual information and perhaps other types of memories
hypothalamus
structure found near the base of the forebrain involved in the regulation of biological needs
Lesioning
involves destroying a piece of the brain.
limbic system
loosely connected network of structures on the border between the cerebral cortex and subcortical areas
medulla
controls largely unconscious but essential functions, such as breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating circulation.
midbrain
the segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain
motor cortex
cortex associated with motor movement
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
magnetic fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancement to map out brain structure
occipital lobe
at the back of the head, includes the cortical area where most visual signals are sent and visual processing is begun
parietal lobe
It includes the area that registers the sense of touch, called the primary somatosensory cortex.
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
use radioactive markers to map chemical activity in the brain over time.
plasticity
anatomical structure and functional organization of the brain are more flexible
pons
several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
somatosensory cortex
cortex associated with touch
temporal lobe
contains an area devoted to auditory processing, the primary auditory cortex.
thalamus
structure in the forebrain through which sensory information passes to get to the cerebral cortex
visual cortex
cortex associated with seeing
hemispheric specialization
Overall, the data suggest that the two hemispheres handle certain types of cognitive tasks better than the other
left hemisphere
is usually better on tasks involving verbal processing, such as language, speech, reading, and writing
right hemisphere
exhibits superiority on many tasks involving nonverbal processing, such as most spatial, musical, and visual recognition tasks
split-brain surgery
the bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.
adoption studies
assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.
family studies
researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait.
twin studies
researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait
Adaptation
an inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged.
Evolutionary psychology
relatively new theoretical perspective in the field that analyzes behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive significance.
Fitness
refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population
natural selection
theory that advantageous heritable characteristics are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations
Reproductive Success
a specific heritable trait contributes to an organism's survival, organisms with that trait should produce more offspring than do those without the trait
amygdala
play a central role in the learning of fear responses and the processing of other basic emotions
Broca's area
plays an important role in the production of speech
Wernicke's area
plays an important role in the comprehension of speech