ROARING 20s/Great Depression/New Deal PEDLIGS

1. Sacco and Vanzetti

were two Italian immigrant anarchists convicted of robbery and murder in Massachusetts in 1921. Their trial became one of the most controversial of the 1920s, as many believed they were prosecuted more for their political beliefs and immigrant status than for any solid evidence. Despite international protests and doubts about the fairness of their trial, they were executed in 1927. The case symbolized the era’s fear of radicals, xenophobia, and the larger Red Scare atmosphere of post–World War I America.

2. Al Capone

was a notorious Chicago gangster who rose to power during Prohibition by controlling the illegal alcohol trade, gambling, and prostitution rings. His organization made millions through bootlegging, while violence and corruption became hallmarks of his rule. Despite his public image as a “Robin Hood” figure, his empire was sustained by bribery and murder. Capone was eventually convicted of tax evasion in 1931, and his career exemplified the dark side of the Roaring Twenties’ lawlessness and corruption under Prohibition.

3. Clarence Darrow

was a prominent defense attorney and civil libertarian known for his involvement in several landmark cases of the early 20th century. Most famously, he defended John Scopes in the 1925 Scopes “Monkey” Trial, which challenged a Tennessee law banning the teaching of evolution. Darrow’s questioning of William Jennings Bryan highlighted the growing tension between modern scientific thought and traditional religious beliefs. His advocacy for intellectual freedom and opposition to the death penalty made him a symbol of liberalism and progressivism during a conservative era.

4. Andrew Mellon

was a wealthy banker and industrialist who served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. A staunch advocate of laissez-faire economics and trickle-down theories, Mellon promoted tax cuts for the wealthy and corporations, reduced government spending, and encouraged business growth. While his policies contributed to the prosperity of the 1920s, critics argue that they also worsened income inequality and set the stage for the Great Depression. Mellon’s tenure reflected the pro-business spirit of the Republican administrations of the decade.

5. Henry Ford

revolutionized American industry by perfecting the assembly line method of mass production, allowing automobiles to be produced faster and at lower costs. His Model T became affordable to the average American, transforming transportation and daily life. Ford’s business practices—such as paying workers higher wages through his famous $5-a-day policy—helped create a consumer economy based on mass production and consumption. However, his anti-union stance and controversial political opinions also made him a divisive figure.

6. Charles Lindbergh

became an international hero in 1927 when he completed the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean, flying from New York to Paris in his plane, The Spirit of St. Louis. His accomplishment symbolized American ingenuity, courage, and the growing importance of aviation technology. However, Lindbergh’s later involvement in isolationist movements and his criticism of U.S. involvement in World War II tarnished his public image. His fame also highlighted the rise of celebrity culture during the 1920s.

7. Marcus Garvey

was a Jamaican-born political leader and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), which promoted Black pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the “Back to Africa” movement. In the 1920s, Garvey inspired millions of African Americans with his message of racial unity and self-determination, challenging the racism and segregation of American society. His establishment of the Black Star Line shipping company sought to connect African descendants globally, though it ultimately failed. Garvey’s legacy influenced later movements for Black empowerment and Pan-Africanism.

8. Warren G. Harding

served as the 29th president of the United States from 1921 to 1923, leading the country after World War I with a campaign promise of a “return to normalcy.” Harding’s administration emphasized pro-business policies, limited government intervention, and a retreat from international affairs. However, his presidency was marred by major scandals, including the Teapot Dome scandal, which revealed widespread corruption among his appointees. Although personally popular, Harding’s reputation suffered after his death when these scandals came to light.

9. Calvin Coolidge

who became president after Harding’s death in 1923, embodied the conservative, pro-business values of the 1920s. Known as “Silent Cal,” he believed that “the business of America is business” and supported policies that favored corporate growth, low taxes, and limited government regulation. Under his leadership, the nation experienced economic expansion, but little was done to address underlying inequalities or the instability of the financial system. Coolidge’s presidency represented the height of 1920s Republican economic philosophy before the Great Depression struck.

10. Herbert Hoover

the 31st president (1929–1933), was a successful engineer and humanitarian before entering politics. Initially seen as a capable, progressive leader, Hoover’s reputation was destroyed by his failure to effectively address the Great Depression. He believed strongly in “rugged individualism,” opposing direct federal relief to individuals and favoring voluntary cooperation between businesses and government. As unemployment and poverty deepened, Hoover’s policies proved inadequate, leading to public outrage and his overwhelming defeat in the 1932 election by Franklin D. Roosevelt.

11. Albert Fall

was Secretary of the Interior under President Warren G. Harding and became infamous for his role in the Teapot Dome Scandal, one of the most notorious cases of political corruption in U.S. history. Fall secretly leased naval oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California, to private oil companies in exchange for personal loans and gifts. His actions violated public trust and demonstrated the rampant cronyism in Harding’s administration. Convicted of bribery in 1929, Fall became the first cabinet official in U.S. history to serve prison time, symbolizing the corruption that tainted the 1920s Republican government.

12. Red Scare (1919–1920)

was a period of intense fear of communism, anarchism, and radical leftist movements in the United States following the Russian Revolution and a wave of domestic labor unrest. The movement was fueled by a series of anarchist bombings, widespread strikes, and xenophobic fears that foreign radicals sought to overthrow the U.S. government. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer launched the “Palmer Raids,” arresting thousands of suspected radicals without proper warrants or due process. The Red Scare revealed deep anxieties about immigration, social change, and political dissent, leading to widespread violations of civil liberties.

13. Scopes Trial (1925)

“Monkey Trial,” was a 1925 legal case in Dayton, Tennessee, that symbolized the conflict between science and religion in 1920s America. High school teacher John T. Scopes was prosecuted for teaching Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, which violated state law. The trial pitted two national figures against each other—Clarence Darrow for the defense and William Jennings Bryan for the prosecution—and became a media spectacle. Although Scopes was found guilty, the trial exposed the deep cultural divide between Fundamentalist religious beliefs and Modernist acceptance of science and progress.

14. Harlem Renaissance

was a flourishing of African American art, literature, and intellectual life centered in Harlem, New York City, during the 1920s. Writers like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay, along with musicians such as Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, expressed a new sense of racial pride and cultural identity. This movement challenged racist stereotypes and asserted the value of Black heritage and creativity. The Harlem Renaissance marked a turning point in U.S. culture, influencing later civil rights activism and reshaping how Americans viewed race and art.

15. Teapot Dome Scandal (1921-1923)

was a major episode of political corruption in President Warren G. Harding’s administration. Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall accepted bribes from oil executives in exchange for secretly leasing government oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California. When the scheme was exposed, it became a national scandal that symbolized the greed and moral decay of the 1920s political elite. The scandal severely damaged Harding’s reputation and became a lasting symbol of corruption in American politics.

16. Black Thursday / Black Tuesday (Stock Market Crash)

Black Thursday (October 24, 1929) and Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929) marked the dramatic collapse of the U.S. stock market, signaling the beginning of the Great Depression. In just a few days, billions of dollars in market value were wiped out as investors panicked and sold off shares. The crash destroyed confidence in the economy, bankrupted thousands of investors, and triggered widespread bank failures. Although not the sole cause of the Depression, the crash exposed deep weaknesses in the American economy and ushered in a decade of economic hardship.

17. Shantytowns / Breadlines / Riding the Rails

As the Great Depression deepened, millions of Americans lost their jobs and homes. Many built makeshift shacks from scrap materials in “shantytowns,” often derisively called “Hoovervilles” after President Hoover, who was blamed for the crisis. Breadlines formed in cities as charities and local governments distributed food to the hungry, while “hobos” rode freight trains across the country in search of work or shelter. These scenes of suffering and displacement vividly captured the human toll of the Depression and revealed the failure of existing institutions to address mass poverty.

18. Installment Plans (cause of Great Depression)

became popular in the 1920s as Americans embraced consumerism, purchasing goods like cars, radios, and appliances on credit. Consumers paid a small down payment and promised to pay the remainder in monthly installments. While this encouraged mass production and consumer spending, it also created a false sense of prosperity built on debt. When the economy slowed, consumers could not make payments, businesses lost revenue, and banks suffered losses—contributing to the financial instability that led to the Great Depression.

19. Stock Market Crash (1929) (cause of the Great Depression)

was the most visible spark of the Great Depression. Throughout the 1920s, stock prices had soared due to excessive speculation and margin buying, where investors purchased stocks with borrowed money. When prices began to fall in October 1929, margin calls forced investors to sell, triggering a downward spiral. The crash erased billions in wealth, undermined public confidence, and caused widespread bank failures, setting off a chain reaction of economic collapse in the United States and abroad.

20. Overproduction and Unequal Wealth (cause of Great Depression)

During the 1920s, both farmers and industrial producers created far more goods than the market could consume, leading to falling prices and unsold surpluses. Meanwhile, the distribution of wealth in America was highly unequal—most workers’ wages did not keep pace with productivity or corporate profits. As the rich accumulated wealth and the majority struggled to buy goods, consumer demand lagged, forcing companies to cut production and lay off workers. This vicious cycle of overproduction and underconsumption weakened the economy’s foundations and deepened the Depression.

21. High Tariffs (cause of Great Depression)

Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922) and the later Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930), severely restricted international trade during the 1920s and early 1930s. These tariffs were intended to protect American industries and farmers from foreign competition, but they provoked retaliation from other nations. As a result, global trade declined dramatically, making it harder for European nations to repay World War I debts and purchase American goods. The decline in exports further depressed U.S. agriculture and manufacturing, worsening the Great Depression.

22. Dawes Plan of 1924 (cause of Great Depression)

was an attempt to stabilize the post–World War I European economy by restructuring Germany’s reparation payments. American banks loaned money to Germany, which then paid reparations to Britain and France, who in turn repaid their debts to the United States. This circular flow of money temporarily boosted the world economy but made Europe heavily dependent on U.S. loans. When American credit collapsed after 1929, the system fell apart, worsening the global economic crisis and deepening the Depression.

23. Business Cycle

refers to the natural pattern of economic expansion and contraction that occurs in capitalist economies. During the 1920s, the U.S. economy experienced rapid growth fueled by technological innovation and speculation, but warning signs of overproduction, falling farm prices, and wage stagnation were ignored. When the boom inevitably turned to bust in 1929, the downward phase was far more severe due to structural weaknesses in banking, credit, and demand. The Great Depression represented an extreme and prolonged contraction of the business cycle.

24. Federal Reserve Tightening of Credit

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Federal Reserve worsened the Depression by tightening the money supply instead of expanding it. In an effort to curb speculation, the Fed raised interest rates and restricted credit, making it harder for businesses and consumers to borrow money. As deflation set in, spending and investment collapsed, leading to more layoffs and bankruptcies. The Fed’s failure to provide sufficient liquidity to banks allowed the financial system to contract further, deepening the economic collapse.

25. Emergency Quota Act of 1921

was the first major legislation to restrict immigration to the United States. It established numerical limits on immigration based on nationality, setting quotas at 3% of the number of foreign-born persons from each country living in the U.S. as of the 1910 census. This law heavily favored immigrants from Northern and Western Europe while sharply reducing arrivals from Southern and Eastern Europe. Reflecting postwar nativism and fears of radicalism during the Red Scare, the act marked a shift from America’s open immigration policy to one of restriction and exclusion.

26. Immigration Act of 1924

(also known as the Johnson-Reed Act) built on the earlier quota system by further limiting immigration and using the 1890 census as the base year, favoring older immigrant groups from Northern Europe. It reduced the quota to 2% and virtually excluded immigrants from Asia, particularly targeting Japanese immigrants. The act aimed to preserve America’s perceived ethnic “homogeneity” and reflected the widespread nativism, xenophobia, and pseudoscientific racism of the 1920s. It remained in effect until the 1960s and profoundly shaped American demographic patterns for decades.

27. Volstead Act

passed in 1919, was the legislation that implemented the 18th Amendment, making it illegal to manufacture, sell, or transport alcoholic beverages in the United States. The act defined “intoxicating liquor” and created enforcement mechanisms for Prohibition. However, it was widely violated, giving rise to bootlegging, speakeasies, and organized crime networks led by figures such as Al Capone. The failure of the Volstead Act to curb alcohol consumption demonstrated the limits of moral reform and contributed to growing public disillusionment with government regulation of personal behavior.

28. Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922)

was a high protective tariff passed under President Harding that raised import duties to their highest levels up to that time. Its goal was to protect American farmers and manufacturers by reducing foreign competition, but it backfired by making it harder for European nations to sell goods to the U.S. and repay war debts. The tariff worsened global economic instability and contributed to declining international trade throughout the 1920s. It reflected the isolationist and pro-business economic policies of the Republican administrations of the decade.

29. Five Power Naval Treaty (1922)

signed at the Washington Naval Conference in 1922, was an early attempt at arms control among major world powers—Britain, the United States, Japan, France, and Italy. The treaty established limits on naval construction, setting ratios for battleship tonnage to prevent an arms race similar to the one preceding World War I. It marked a brief moment of international cooperation and reflected postwar desires for peace and disarmament. However, the treaty lacked enforcement mechanisms, and by the 1930s, rising militarism in Japan and Europe undermined its effectiveness.

30. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

by the United States and 14 other nations (eventually joined by over 60 countries), sought to renounce war as a tool of national policy. Proposed by U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand, the agreement reflected idealistic hopes for lasting world peace in the aftermath of World War I. Although it had no means of enforcement and failed to prevent future conflicts, including World War II, it represented the interwar period’s widespread belief in diplomacy and collective security. The pact later influenced the development of international law against aggressive warfare.

31. Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930)

passed under President Herbert Hoover, was the highest protective tariff in U.S. history, raising duties on over 20,000 imported goods. Intended to protect American farmers and manufacturers during the early years of the Great Depression, it instead triggered retaliatory tariffs from foreign nations, drastically reducing international trade. The tariff worsened the global economic downturn and deepened the Depression both domestically and abroad. Economists widely regard it as one of the most damaging legislative mistakes of the era.

32. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

created by President Hoover in 1932, was a government agency designed to provide emergency loans to banks, railroads, insurance companies, and other large businesses in an attempt to stabilize the economy. The RFC represented a significant departure from Hoover’s earlier commitment to limited government intervention. However, critics argued that it mainly helped big businesses rather than struggling individuals and failed to reverse the economic collapse. Despite its shortcomings, the RFC laid the groundwork for later New Deal programs that expanded federal economic involvement.

33. Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

granted full U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States. This law was partly a recognition of Native Americans’ contributions during World War I and an attempt to assimilate them into American society. While citizenship extended legal rights and voting privileges, it did not address issues of tribal sovereignty or economic inequality. Many Native Americans continued to face discrimination and federal policies that sought to erode traditional cultures until reforms in the mid-20th century.

34. Agricultural Marketing Act (1929)

signed by President Hoover in 1929, aimed to help struggling farmers by creating the Federal Farm Board, which was empowered to buy, store, and sell agricultural surpluses to stabilize prices. The policy reflected Hoover’s belief in voluntary cooperation rather than direct government control. However, the Farm Board lacked the authority and resources to offset falling prices as the Depression worsened, and it failed to prevent widespread farm bankruptcies. The act demonstrated the limits of Hoover’s conservative approach to economic intervention and foreshadowed more aggressive New Deal agricultural reforms.

35. Prohibition

enacted by the 18th Amendment and enforced by the Volstead Act in 1920, banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States. Intended to reduce crime, corruption, and social problems, Prohibition instead gave rise to widespread lawbreaking, bootlegging, and organized crime. Speakeasies flourished, and figures like Al Capone built vast criminal empires based on illegal alcohol distribution. The failure of Prohibition revealed the limits of moral reform through law and led to its repeal in 1933 by the 21st Amendment, signaling a shift toward a more pragmatic approach to social issues.

36. Fundamentalism vs. Modernism

During the 1920s, American culture was divided between Fundamentalism and Modernism. Fundamentalists, often from rural areas, emphasized a literal interpretation of the Bible and opposed scientific theories like evolution, seeing them as threats to traditional moral values. Modernists, typically urban and educated, embraced science, reason, and social progress, arguing that religion should adapt to new knowledge. This cultural conflict was dramatized in the Scopes Trial of 1925, which symbolized the broader struggle between traditionalism and modernity in postwar America. The debate reflected deep tensions over religion, science, and social change during the Roaring Twenties.

37. Scientific Management

also known as “Taylorism” after its founder Frederick Winslow Taylor, was an industrial efficiency theory that sought to improve productivity by studying and standardizing work processes. In the 1920s, business leaders such as Henry Ford applied these principles to assembly-line production, dramatically reducing costs and increasing output. This system transformed manufacturing and symbolized the decade’s faith in technology and rational organization. However, critics argued that it dehumanized workers by reducing them to mere parts of a machine, sparking debates about labor, efficiency, and the human cost of progress.

38. Leisure

During the 1920s, the growth of leisure activities reflected America’s new consumer culture and the effects of shorter working hours, higher wages, and urbanization. Mass entertainment—such as movies, radio, professional sports, and jazz music—became integral to modern life. The rise of Hollywood and stars like Charlie Chaplin and Babe Ruth created a national celebrity culture. Leisure came to symbolize both the prosperity and the cultural transformation of the Roaring Twenties, as Americans increasingly valued recreation, style, and self-expression in an era of economic boom.

39. Return to Normalcy

was the campaign slogan of Republican Warren G. Harding in the 1920 presidential election, promising a return to pre–World War I stability and isolationism. After years of war, reform, and upheaval under Woodrow Wilson, many Americans yearned for peace and economic prosperity. Harding’s slogan captured the public’s desire for less government activism and more focus on business growth. The phrase came to define the 1920s Republican approach—pro-business, isolationist, and conservative—but also symbolized a retreat from the social progressivism of the previous decade.

40. Credit

in the 1920s revolutionized American economic life by allowing consumers to purchase goods and services without paying in full upfront. This easy access to credit—through installment buying, loans, and charge accounts—fueled consumer spending and economic expansion. However, the overuse of credit created an illusion of prosperity while hiding deep structural weaknesses in the economy. When the Depression hit, consumers and businesses could not repay debts, causing widespread defaults and bank failures. Credit’s rapid expansion and collapse became both a hallmark and a cause of the economic turmoil of the 1930s.

41. Bull Market, Bear Market, and Stock Speculation

A “bull market” refers to a period of rising stock prices, while a “bear market” describes falling prices and investor pessimism. During the 1920s, the U.S. experienced a massive bull market fueled by widespread speculation and margin buying, where investors borrowed money to purchase stocks. Many Americans viewed the stock market as a quick path to wealth, driving prices far above actual economic value. When the market crashed in 1929, overleveraged investors faced ruin, triggering a domino effect that contributed to the Great Depression. The episode exposed the dangers of unregulated speculation and the illusion of endless growth.

42. Rugged Individualism

was President Herbert Hoover’s guiding philosophy, emphasizing self-reliance, personal responsibility, and minimal government interference in the economy. Hoover believed that direct federal relief would undermine individual initiative and the American work ethic. While this belief reflected longstanding American values of independence and free enterprise, it proved disastrous during the Great Depression, as millions faced unemployment and poverty without adequate assistance. Hoover’s refusal to provide direct federal aid deepened public resentment and contributed to his defeat by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932.

43. Trickle-Down Economics

also known as supply-side or “laissez-faire” economics, was the belief that stimulating business and investment at the top of the economic hierarchy would eventually benefit everyone. Popularized by Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon and the Republican administrations of the 1920s, the policy included tax cuts for the wealthy, reduced government regulation, and support for corporate expansion. Advocates argued that business prosperity would create jobs and raise wages. However, critics claimed it worsened income inequality and failed to address the needs of workers and farmers, contributing to the economic imbalances that led to the Great Depression.

44. Isolationists

in the 1920s and 1930s believed that the United States should avoid involvement in foreign conflicts and focus on domestic affairs. After the trauma of World War I, many Americans rejected international commitments like the League of Nations, fearing they would drag the country into future wars. This sentiment shaped policies such as the Washington Naval Conference, high protective tariffs, and limited immigration. Although isolationism was never total—America still engaged in trade and diplomacy—it dominated political thought until the outbreak of World War II, when global threats forced a reevaluation of U.S. foreign policy.

45. Nativists

were Americans who sought to preserve the nation’s perceived ethnic and cultural identity by restricting immigration and opposing groups they viewed as “un-American.” In the 1920s, nativism surged in response to fears of radicalism, job competition, and changing demographics brought by mass immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe. The movement helped inspire restrictive laws such as the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and Immigration Act (1924). Nativists also supported organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, which targeted immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and African Americans. Their influence reflected widespread social anxiety about modernization and cultural change in postwar America.

46. Gangs

During the Prohibition era, organized crime syndicates, or “gangs,” thrived by controlling the illegal production and distribution of alcohol. Figures like Al Capone in Chicago built vast criminal empires through bootlegging, bribery, and violence. Gang warfare became a defining feature of urban life in the 1920s, as rival groups fought for control of lucrative territories. The rise of gangs exposed the unintended consequences of Prohibition and highlighted widespread corruption in law enforcement and politics. Organized crime would remain a powerful force in American society long after Prohibition ended.

47. The Lost Generation

refers to a group of American writers and intellectuals in the 1920s who became disillusioned with the materialism and moral emptiness of post–World War I society. Many, such as Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein, lived as expatriates in Europe, critiquing American culture through works that explored alienation, cynicism, and the search for meaning. Their writing reflected the psychological toll of war and the cultural upheaval of the modern age. The Lost Generation helped shape modern American literature and symbolized a broader questioning of traditional values in the Jazz Age.

48. Anti-Evolution League

was an organization formed in the early 1920s to oppose the teaching of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in public schools, arguing that it contradicted the Biblical account of creation. The group played a major role in pushing for state laws banning the teaching of evolution, including the Tennessee law that led to the 1925 Scopes Trial. The League represented the broader Fundamentalist movement’s resistance to modern science and secularism. Its activism highlighted the cultural struggle between traditional religious beliefs and the growing influence of scientific thinking in American education and society.

49. Flappers

were young women of the 1920s who defied traditional gender norms through their fashion, behavior, and attitudes. Characterized by short bobbed hair, knee-length skirts, and bold makeup, flappers embraced new freedoms such as smoking, drinking, and dancing in public. They symbolized the changing roles of women in modern urban society and the rise of a youth culture that rejected Victorian moral standards. Though often criticized by older generations, flappers represented the growing independence of women following World War I and the passage of the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote.

50. Bonus Army

was a group of approximately 20,000 World War I veterans who marched on Washington, D.C., in 1932 to demand early payment of bonuses promised to them for their wartime service. Facing economic hardship during the Great Depression, the veterans built makeshift camps near the Capitol and peacefully protested for months. President Hoover ordered the U.S. Army, led by General Douglas MacArthur, to forcibly remove them, resulting in violence and public outrage. The event damaged Hoover’s reputation and became a powerful symbol of government insensitivity during the Depression.

51. NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)

was a leading civil rights organization dedicated to fighting racial discrimination, segregation, and violence against African Americans through legal challenges and public advocacy. During the 1920s and 1930s, the NAACP, under leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois and James Weldon Johnson, campaigned for anti-lynching legislation and equal rights in education and employment. The group’s work laid the foundation for future civil rights victories, including the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision. The NAACP’s emphasis on legal reform reflected a strategy of working within the American political system to achieve racial justice.

52. ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union)

founded in 1920, was created to defend and preserve individual rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution, particularly during the Red Scare when civil liberties were under attack. The ACLU gained national attention by supporting controversial cases, such as the defense of John Scopes in the 1925 Scopes Trial. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, it fought for free speech, labor rights, and protections for political dissidents. The ACLU became a major advocate for constitutional freedoms and remains one of the most influential civil rights organizations in American history.

53. UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association)

founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914, was a Black nationalist and Pan-African organization that promoted racial pride, economic independence, and unity among people of African descent. During the 1920s, the UNIA became one of the largest mass movements in African American history, encouraging the “Back to Africa” movement and establishing Black-owned businesses such as the Black Star Line shipping company. Although the UNIA declined after Garvey’s imprisonment and deportation, it inspired later Black Power and Pan-African movements, leaving a lasting legacy on global struggles for racial equality.

54. Hobos

were unemployed, often homeless men who traveled across the United States by freight trains during the Great Depression in search of work or food. Many were former farmers, laborers, or veterans who had lost everything when the economy collapsed. They developed their own subculture, complete with signs, symbols, and informal support networks to help one another survive. The sight of hobos riding the rails became one of the most enduring and tragic images of the Depression, illustrating the desperation and mobility of America’s unemployed masses.

55. Scottsboro Nine

were nine African American teenagers falsely accused of raping two white women aboard a freight train in Alabama in 1931. Despite weak evidence and contradictory testimony, all nine were quickly convicted by all-white juries, and eight were sentenced to death. The case drew national and international outrage, exposing the deep racial injustices of the Jim Crow South and the failures of the American legal system. The Scottsboro trials became a landmark in civil rights history, leading to two Supreme Court rulings—Powell v. Alabama (1932), which established the right to adequate legal counsel, and Norris v. Alabama (1935), which struck down racial exclusion from juries. The case galvanized activism by groups such as the NAACP and the Communist Party’s International Labor Defense, highlighting the intersection of race, class, and justice in Depression-era America.

56. Abrams v. United States (1919)

was a Supreme Court case in which several Russian-born anarchists were convicted under the 1918 Sedition Act for distributing leaflets that criticized U.S. military intervention in the Russian Revolution. The Court upheld their convictions, ruling that their actions posed a “clear and present danger” to national security—a continuation of the precedent set in Schenck v. United States (1919). However, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes issued a famous dissent, arguing that free speech should be protected unless it posed an immediate threat of harm. Holmes’s dissent later became a cornerstone for modern First Amendment jurisprudence and marked a turning point in the evolving understanding of civil liberties during the Red Scare and beyond.

1. Franklin Delano Roosevelt

was the 32nd president of the United States (1933–1945) and the only one elected to four terms. He led the nation through the Great Depression and World War II, transforming the role of the federal government through his New Deal programs. Roosevelt believed in active government intervention to promote economic recovery, social welfare, and financial reform. His leadership helped restore public confidence after the failures of the Hoover administration, and his policies redefined American liberalism by establishing the expectation that the federal government had a duty to ensure the economic security of its citizens.

2. Migrant Mother

is the title of an iconic 1936 photograph taken by Dorothea Lange, depicting Florence Owens Thompson, a destitute mother with her children during the Great Depression. The image captured the suffering of migrant farmworkers displaced by the Dust Bowl and economic collapse, becoming one of the most powerful symbols of New Deal–era America. Published widely, it drew national attention to rural poverty and helped justify federal relief programs for struggling agricultural families. The photograph remains a defining representation of the Depression’s human cost and the resilience of ordinary Americans.

3. Eleanor Roosevelt

the wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt, was one of the most influential First Ladies in U.S. history. Unlike her predecessors, she took an active role in politics—holding press conferences, writing newspaper columns, and advocating for social reform, racial equality, and women’s rights. She toured the nation to inspect New Deal programs and became a crucial link between the president and the public. Her compassion and activism reshaped the role of First Lady from ceremonial figure to political partner, and she later became a leading voice for human rights at the United Nations after FDR’s death.

4. Father Charles Coughlin

was a Catholic priest and popular radio broadcaster who became one of the most influential—and controversial—critics of the New Deal. Initially a supporter of Roosevelt, he turned against FDR, accusing him of favoring bankers and failing to address income inequality. Coughlin promoted inflationary monetary policies and anti-capitalist ideas, but his rhetoric later took on antisemitic and fascist tones, leading the Catholic Church to silence him. His career reflected the power of mass media in shaping public opinion during the 1930s and the growing discontent among those who believed the New Deal did not go far enough.

5. Senator Huey Long

of Louisiana, nicknamed “The Kingfish,” was a populist leader who challenged FDR from the left during the Great Depression. He criticized the New Deal for not doing enough to redistribute wealth and launched his “Share Our Wealth” program, which proposed confiscating fortunes over $5 million to provide every American family with income, housing, and education. Long’s fiery speeches made him a national figure and a potential rival to Roosevelt before his assassination in 1935. His movement reflected the desperation of the poor and the appeal of radical alternatives during the Depression.

6. Francis Townsend

was a retired California physician who became a prominent critic of Roosevelt’s New Deal, advocating for a more expansive social welfare program. In 1933, he proposed the “Townsend Plan,” which called for the federal government to provide every American over the age of 60 with a monthly pension of $200, funded by a national sales tax. Though never enacted, the plan gained massive popular support and pressured Roosevelt to create the Social Security Act in 1935. Townsend’s movement reflected growing public demand for government action to support the elderly and unemployed.

7. John Maynard Keynes

was a British economist whose theories revolutionized modern economic thought and strongly influenced New Deal policy. He argued that during economic downturns, governments should use deficit spending to stimulate demand and reduce unemployment, rather than relying on balanced budgets. This “Keynesian” approach marked a dramatic departure from classical laissez-faire economics, emphasizing government responsibility for managing economic cycles. Keynes’s ideas provided the intellectual foundation for many New Deal programs and reshaped global economic policy throughout the mid-20th century.

8. Election of 1932 / Election of 1936

The Election of 1932 marked a turning point in U.S. history, as Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated incumbent Herbert Hoover in a landslide amid widespread economic despair. Roosevelt’s promise of a “New Deal for the American people” signaled a dramatic shift toward active government intervention in the economy. In the Election of 1936, FDR won reelection by an even greater margin, defeating Republican Alf Landon and cementing a new Democratic coalition of urban workers, farmers, immigrants, and African Americans. These elections realigned American politics for decades, establishing the Democratic Party as the dominant force in national government.

9. Dust Bowl

was a devastating environmental disaster of the 1930s that struck the Great Plains, caused by severe drought, high winds, and poor farming practices that stripped the soil of its nutrients. Massive dust storms destroyed crops, displaced thousands of farm families, and transformed fertile land into barren wasteland. Many affected farmers—known as “Okies”—migrated west to California in search of work and a better life. The crisis led the federal government to implement soil conservation programs and reform agricultural policy, revealing the connection between environmental management and economic stability.

10. The Grapes of Wrath (1939)

written by John Steinbeck and published in 1939, is a powerful novel depicting the struggles of the Joad family, Oklahoma farmers forced to migrate to California during the Dust Bowl. The book exposed the exploitation of migrant laborers and the harsh realities of poverty in Depression-era America. Steinbeck’s vivid portrayal of suffering and resilience won him the Pulitzer Prize and established him as one of the foremost chroniclers of the human cost of the Great Depression. The novel also strengthened public support for New Deal social and labor reforms.

11. Of Mice and Men (1937)

a novella by John Steinbeck, tells the story of two displaced migrant workers, George Milton and Lennie Small, as they travel through California seeking employment during the Great Depression. The story explores themes of loneliness, friendship, and the elusive nature of the American Dream. Steinbeck used realistic dialogue and vivid descriptions to portray the harsh realities of life for itinerant workers. The novella highlighted social inequality and economic hardship, raising public awareness of the struggles faced by the working poor in the 1930s.

12. Emergency Banking Act (1933)

was passed just days after Franklin D. Roosevelt’s inauguration to restore confidence in the U.S. banking system. It allowed the federal government to inspect banks during a “bank holiday” and reopen only those deemed financially sound. The act also granted the president broader authority over banking operations, helping stabilize the financial system. Its passage marked an early and highly visible success of the New Deal, reassuring Americans and ending the panic-induced bank runs that had worsened the Depression.

13. Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act (1933)

created important reforms to prevent another financial collapse like that of 1929. It established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits and guaranteed that people would not lose their money if a bank failed. The act also separated commercial banks from investment banks, limiting risky speculation with depositor funds. By providing security for individual depositors and restoring trust in banks, Glass-Steagall helped stabilize the financial system and became a cornerstone of federal banking regulation for decades.

14. Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act, 1935)

also known as the National Labor Relations Act, guaranteed American workers the right to organize unions, engage in collective bargaining, and strike. It also created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to enforce these rights and investigate unfair labor practices. The act empowered labor unions, leading to significant increases in union membership and strengthening workers’ influence in the economy. It became a foundational law for labor rights and reinforced the New Deal’s commitment to social and economic justice.

15. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC, 1934)

was created to regulate the stock market and protect investors from fraud and manipulation, especially after the 1929 crash. The agency required companies to disclose accurate financial information and monitored trading practices to ensure fairness. Its goal was to restore public confidence in the financial markets and prevent another catastrophic economic collapse. The SEC remains a major federal agency overseeing U.S. financial markets and securities.

16. Public Works Administration (PWA)

established in 1933, funded large-scale public infrastructure projects to stimulate economic recovery and provide jobs. It focused on long-term construction efforts such as bridges, schools, hospitals, and dams. By injecting government money into the economy and improving public infrastructure, the PWA helped reduce unemployment and modernize the nation’s resources while maintaining strict oversight to ensure efficiency and quality.

17. Civil Works Administration (CWA)

was a short-term program created in 1933 to provide immediate employment during the harsh winter months. It hired millions of Americans for public works projects such as building roads, schools, and airports. Unlike the PWA, the CWA focused on rapid job creation and relief rather than long-term infrastructure development. Though temporary, it demonstrated the federal government’s commitment to direct intervention in the labor market during the Depression.

18. Works Progress Administration (WPA)

established in 1935, became the largest New Deal program, employing millions of Americans in public works projects including roads, bridges, parks, schools, and government buildings. It also included programs for artists, writers, musicians, and actors through the Federal Art, Writers, and Theatre Projects. The WPA not only provided employment but also contributed to cultural development and long-term public infrastructure, showcasing Roosevelt’s holistic approach to relief and recovery.

19. National Recovery Administration (NRA)

created in 1933 under the National Industrial Recovery Act, aimed to stimulate industrial recovery by promoting fair business practices, minimum wages, and collective bargaining. Businesses adhering to the NRA’s codes displayed the Blue Eagle symbol to signal compliance and patriotism. While it encouraged cooperation between labor and industry, it faced criticism for favoring large corporations and was declared unconstitutional in 1935. Despite its short life, it influenced future labor and economic regulations.

20. Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)

was created in 1933 to help farmers during the Depression by addressing overproduction and low crop prices. It paid farmers to reduce production of staple crops, thereby raising agricultural prices. While the program stabilized some farm incomes, it disproportionately benefited large landowners and often displaced tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The AAA marked a significant federal intervention in agriculture and reflected the New Deal’s goal of economic recovery through government regulation.

21. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

established in 1933, was a New Deal program designed to modernize the Tennessee Valley, one of the poorest regions of the country. The TVA built dams and hydroelectric plants, which provided cheap electricity, controlled flooding, and created jobs. It also promoted soil conservation and economic development, helping farmers and rural communities. By combining infrastructure, environmental management, and regional planning, the TVA became a model for federal intervention aimed at both economic recovery and long-term social improvement.

22. Social Security Act (SSA, 1935)

created a permanent federal safety net for vulnerable Americans. It provided retirement pensions funded by payroll taxes, unemployment insurance, and aid to dependent children. While initially limited—excluding many farm and domestic workers—it represented a major shift in government responsibility, ensuring citizens would receive assistance in old age, during unemployment, or in hardship. The SSA remains a foundational pillar of the American welfare state and a key example of New Deal reform.

23. Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

established critical labor protections, including a federal minimum wage, maximum working hours, and restrictions on child labor. It helped standardize working conditions across industries and provided essential protections for vulnerable workers. By regulating employment standards, the act addressed economic inequality and labor exploitation, continuing the New Deal’s focus on improving both the quality of work and the well-being of American workers.

24. 20th Amendment (1933)

ratified in 1933, changed the dates of presidential and congressional terms. It moved the presidential inauguration from March 4 to January 20 and shortened the “lame-duck” period in Congress. This amendment allowed for quicker transitions in government, which was particularly important during times of national crisis, such as the Great Depression, enabling new administrations to respond faster to economic emergencies.

25. 21st Amendment (1933)

repealed Prohibition, which had been established by the 18th Amendment. Its ratification ended the nationwide ban on alcohol, which had led to widespread illegal trade, organized crime, and loss of tax revenue. By legalizing alcohol again, the amendment generated government income through taxation and reflected a pragmatic response to social and economic realities during the Depression.

26. Fireside Chats

were a series of radio addresses delivered by Franklin D. Roosevelt to the American public. Beginning in 1933, these broadcasts allowed FDR to speak directly to citizens, explaining New Deal policies, calming fears, and building trust in the government. The chats were innovative for using mass media to communicate with the public and were instrumental in boosting morale and encouraging support for relief and recovery programs during the Depression.

27. Relief

programs were designed to provide immediate assistance to Americans suffering during the Great Depression. Examples include the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Works Progress Administration (WPA), and direct aid to the unemployed or impoverished. These initiatives offered short-term solutions such as food, jobs, and housing support. Relief efforts were critical for alleviating human suffering and maintaining social stability while long-term economic recovery was pursued.

28. Recovery

programs aimed to stimulate the economy and restore employment, industrial production, and agricultural prices to pre-Depression levels. Programs such as the National Recovery Administration (NRA), the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), and the Public Works Administration (PWA) focused on rebuilding infrastructure, regulating industries, and supporting farmers. Recovery measures were intended to bring stability to the economy and encourage sustainable growth beyond immediate relief.

29. Reform

programs sought to prevent future economic crises by changing the structure of the economy and creating safeguards for workers, businesses, and consumers. Examples include the Social Security Act, the Glass-Steagall Act, and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). These programs aimed to regulate financial markets, protect labor rights, and ensure long-term stability, reflecting a permanent shift in the role of the federal government in American economic life.

30. Alphabet Soup

is a term used to describe the numerous New Deal agencies and programs, most of which were known by their initials, such as WPA, TVA, AAA, and CCC. The term highlights the unprecedented expansion of the federal government during Roosevelt’s administration, which sought to address the multiple crises of the Great Depression through relief, recovery, and reform. While sometimes criticized for bureaucratic complexity, these agencies collectively transformed the relationship between Americans and the federal government.

31. Court Packing / Nine Old Men

plan refers to President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s controversial 1937 proposal to expand the Supreme Court. Frustrated that the Court had struck down key New Deal legislation, FDR sought to add up to six new justices who would be sympathetic to his policies. The Supreme Court justices of the time were often called the “Nine Old Men.” Although the plan was widely criticized as an attempt to undermine judicial independence and was ultimately unsuccessful, it pressured the Court to become more favorable toward New Deal legislation, allowing many programs to survive and shaping the balance of power between branches of government.

32. American Liberty League

founded in 1934, was a political organization that opposed many New Deal policies. Comprised mainly of wealthy businessmen and conservative politicians, the League argued that Roosevelt’s programs expanded government power excessively and threatened individual liberties. Although it failed to gain widespread public support, the League reflected significant conservative resistance to the New Deal, highlighting the ideological divide over the role of federal government during the Depression.

33. Okies

was the nickname for migrant farmers, primarily from Oklahoma, who were forced to leave their homes during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. They traveled west, especially to California, in search of work and better living conditions. Many faced poverty, discrimination, and harsh living conditions in migrant camps. The plight of the Okies, famously depicted in John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, illustrated the human cost of environmental disaster combined with economic hardship, and it fueled public support for federal aid programs.

34. Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

founded in 1935, was a federation of unions that organized workers by industry rather than by craft. It focused on unskilled and semi-skilled laborers in mass-production industries such as steel, automobiles, and rubber. Led by figures like John L. Lewis, the CIO helped increase union membership and strengthened the labor movement. Its organizing efforts, strikes, and negotiations played a key role in securing workers’ rights and improving wages and working conditions during the New Deal era.

35. Keynesian Economic Theory

developed by British economist John Maynard Keynes, influenced New Deal policies by advocating for active government intervention to stabilize the economy. According to Keynes, during times of economic downturn, governments should increase spending to stimulate demand and create jobs, even if it required deficit spending. Roosevelt’s New Deal reflected this approach through programs like the WPA and PWA, which injected federal funds into the economy to promote recovery and combat unemployment.

Tulsa Race Riot (1921)

also known as the Tulsa Race Massacre, occurred in late May and early June 1921 in the prosperous Black neighborhood of Greenwood, Tulsa, Oklahoma—often called “Black Wall Street.” Sparked by a false accusation of assault against a young Black man, white mobs attacked the community, burning homes, businesses, and churches to the ground. The violence left as many as 300 African Americans dead and thousands homeless, while local officials largely ignored or covered up the atrocity. The event symbolized the extreme racial tensions and systemic injustice faced by African Americans during the early 20th century.

Red Summer (1919)

was a period of intense racial violence and unrest across the United States, marked by white mob attacks on Black communities in more than three dozen cities. The violence was fueled by postwar economic tensions, competition for jobs and housing, and the return of Black veterans unwilling to accept Jim Crow discrimination. In cities like Chicago and Washington, D.C., the riots revealed deep-seated racial divisions and the failure of the federal government to protect Black citizens. The Red Summer became a catalyst for the growth of the civil rights movement and the rise of new Black political and cultural consciousness.

New Woman

was a cultural ideal of the 1920s representing women who challenged traditional gender roles by seeking greater independence, education, and participation in public life. Symbolized by flappers with short hair, daring fashion, and a freer attitude toward social conventions, the New Woman embodied the social changes brought about by urbanization and World War I. Many women entered the workforce, attended college, and advocated for reproductive rights and political equality following the passage of the 19th Amendment. This new ideal reflected broader shifts in American society toward modernity and individual freedom.

New Negro

popularized during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s, described a generation of African Americans who rejected racial stereotypes and demanded political, social, and artistic self-determination. Figures such as Alain Locke and Langston Hughes emphasized racial pride, cultural expression, and resistance to white supremacy. This movement was a response to decades of discrimination and violence, as well as the migration of Black Americans from the rural South to northern cities. The New Negro represented a key transformation in Black identity and laid the intellectual groundwork for the later civil rights movement.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

was a New Deal program established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to combat unemployment during the Great Depression. It provided jobs for young, unmarried men in environmental conservation projects, such as reforestation, soil erosion control, and national park development. The CCC not only gave millions of Americans steady income but also improved the nation’s infrastructure and natural resources. It became one of the most popular and enduring New Deal programs, reflecting Roosevelt’s commitment to both economic recovery and environmental stewardship.

Keynesian Economic Theory

developed by British economist John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression, argued that governments should actively use fiscal policy—spending and taxation—to manage economic cycles. Keynes believed that in times of recession, increased government spending could stimulate demand, create jobs, and revive economic growth. This theory marked a major shift from laissez-faire capitalism and influenced many New Deal programs under Roosevelt. Keynesian economics became the foundation for modern macroeconomic policy and shaped U.S. economic strategy throughout the mid-20th century.