PSYC 101: Unit 3 - Developmental Psychology

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

instinct

a natural or inherent impulse or behavior, such as a baby turning its head to suckle when its cheek is stroked.

reflex

an automatic response to a stimulus, such as the pupil of your eye contracting in the presence of bright light.

associative learning

a type of learning that involves making connections between stimuli and responses, including classical and operant conditioning.

conditioned

approximately synonymous with the word learned in the context of classical conditioning.

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that initially produces no specific response until it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior conditioning.

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli, such as salivating to the smell of a favorite cake but not to a dirty diaper.

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, such as feeling hungry for a treat when smelling different types of cookies.

extinction

The puppy no longer greeting her when she enters the house is an example of extinction.

criticism of Watson and Rayner's work

It would be unethical by today's research standards.

classical conditioning experiment

Knowing that a student fears exams, the instructor wears a bright red shirt only on exam day, every exam day, to see how long it is before the red shirt becomes an object of fear to the student.

evolutionary theory

The evolutionary theory explains that the immediate associations involved in a conditioned taste aversion are a result of adaptation that helps us learn to avoid foods that are potentially harmful.

Rescorla

According to psychologist Rescorla, classical conditioning is effective because of the ability of a person or animal to predict the relationship between the UCS and the CS.

spontaneous recovery

The return of a previously extinguished response is called spontaneous recovery.

acquisition and extinction

Acquisition and extinction can be thought of as opposite processes within the classical conditioning model.

negative reinforcement

Dave's boss is using negative reinforcement.

shaping

Shaping describes rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior.

innate reinforcers

Innate reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities.

primary reinforcers

innate reinforcing qualities.

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

partial reinforcement

In reinforcement, the person or animal is not reinforced every time a desired behavior is performed.

continuous reinforcement

Every time a desired behavior is performed, the person or animal is reinforced.

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

Gus receives a paycheck at the end of every week.

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

Knowing you will get to play miniature golf as soon as you collect 10 gold stars for your reward chart.

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Gambling at a slot machine.

cognitive map

A mental picture of the layout of an environment.

operant conditioning

Learning that is associated with consequences of behavior.

B. F. Skinner

Famous for demonstrating the principles of operant conditioning: The motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated.

Edward C. Tolman

Suggested a cognitive aspect to learning.

fixed ratio

A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.

variable interval

A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

variable ratio

A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.

classical conditioning

A learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

imitation

Learning by observing and copying the behavior of others.

modeling

Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.

consequence

An outcome or result that follows a behavior.

behavior

Any observable action made by a living being.

reinforcement schedule

A rule stating which instances of behavior will be reinforced.

behavior modification

The use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.

Skinner box

An experimental apparatus used to study animal behavior in operant conditioning.

reward

A positive reinforcement that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by observing the behavior of others.

Model

An individual whose behavior is observed and imitated by another.

Vicarious Reinforcement

When an individual observes another receiving a reward for a behavior and is motivated to perform that behavior.

Vicarious Punishment

When an individual observes another receiving a punishment for a behavior and is discouraged from performing that behavior.

Social Learning Theory

One can learn new behaviors by observing others.

Instincts

Innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events.

Reflexes

A motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment.

Observational Learning Example

Dymesha watches her older sister do headstands and learns to do them herself.

Vicarious Reinforcement Example

Babs saw Martin receive a candy bar for completing his reading list.

Vicarious Punishment Example

Jeong observes his sister Bronwyn getting spanked for spitting out her carrots.

Learning from Media

Children may model aggressive behavior after seeing a television character receive a reward for taking violent action.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Conditioned Stimulus

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Behavior Modeling

Learning new behaviors by observing and imitating others.

Cognition

The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Behaviorist Theory

A theory that explains behavior in terms of conditioning without appeal to thoughts or feelings.

Learning Theory

A framework for understanding how individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge.

Behavior Observation

The process of watching and recording the behavior of individuals.

Motivation in Learning

The process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

UCR (Unconditioned Response)

The desire to eat cake.

UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)

Squirting Patrick with a water pistol.

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

Present when Patrick associates cake with being squirted by a water pistol.

CR (Conditioned Response)

Avoiding cake.

Means of Modifying Behavior

The four means of modifying behavior are negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, and positive punishment.

Example of Latent Learning

Memorizing a bedtime story without realizing it until needing to recite it.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura used a Bobo doll to demonstrate observational learning in children.

Physical Development

Involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.

Cognitive Development

Involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a rewarding stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

surveys

Asking individuals to self-report important information about how their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs differ over a 10-year period.

nature

Genes and biology in the nature vs. nurture debate.

nurture

Environment and culture in the nature vs. nurture debate.

developmental milestones

Age-specific approximations of when a certain skill or ability should first occur in normal development.

discontinuous trajectory

When development proceeds in a stepwise fashion with periods of growth interrupted by periods where growth is not occurring.

Sigmund Freud

The theorist credited with proposing the psychosexual stages of development.

Erik Erikson

According to this theorist, lifespan development encompasses eight stages and at each stage we encounter a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved.

schemata

Concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information.

trust vs. mistrust

The primary developmental task of the stage between birth and one year in Erikson's developmental theory.

assimilation

When a child incorporates new information into existing schemata, as exemplified by Ainsley calling cars 'trucks'.

integrity vs. despair

The primary developmental task for individuals after age 65, assessing their lives and contributions.

accommodation

When a child adjusts their schemata to incorporate new information, as exemplified by Gordon learning that tomatoes are not apples.

Jean Piaget's sensorimotor stage

During this stage, the world is experienced through what we can take in through our perceptual systems and how we can move our bodies.

sensorimotor stage

During Jean Piaget's sensorimotor stage, the world is experienced through what we can take in through our perceptual systems and how we can move our bodies.

concrete operational stage

During Piaget's proposed concrete operational stage of development, children understand events and analogies logically, and they can perform simple mathematical operations. At the same time they lack the ability to think abstractly.

identity vs. confusion

Adolescents (ages 12-18) experiment with and develop a sense of who they are and what roles they want to play. Erik Erikson would argue that during this period adolescents face the identity vs. confusion task of development.

object permanence

Madeline is seven months old. Her mother is eating a cookie and Madeline wants some. Her mother hides the cookie under a napkin, but Madeline is not fooled. She knows the cookie is still there. This exemplifies object permanence.

conservation

Scott knows that one piece of pizza cut into two slices is the same amount as cutting the same piece of pizza into three slices. This illustrates conservation.

egocentrism

Jory, a six year old, is picking out a card for his mother's birthday. He picks the card with a picture of Lightning McQueen, reasoning that since he loves Cars his mother does too. This exemplifies egocentrism.

pre-conventional stage

Elroy decided not to cheat on the exam because he would fail the class if he was caught and he'd get punished by his parents. This exemplifies the pre-conventional stage of moral development.

formal operational stage

According to Jean Piaget, in the formal operational stage, children begin to use abstract thinking processes.

Vygotsky

Which theorist promoted the idea that development is fundamentally affected by one's culture as well as their interactions with their own environment? Vygotsky.

post-conventional level

Britta knows that it is wrong to break into a store that is closed, but there is a medical emergency and she has no cell phone with her. Her date has collapsed on the street and is having a seizure. Britta breaks the window of a local store, unlocks the door, and lets herself in to call the police. She stays behind to explain her behavior to the store owner, who shows up shortly after he is called. Britta is operating at the post-conventional level of Kohlberg's theory of morality.

neuroconstructivist

The notion that the manner in which one's brain develops can have a significant impact on a person's cognitive functioning.

zygote

A one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge.