mcat misc

endoderm

organs that assist in digestion (liver, pancreas) and the epithelium (lining) of the respiratory & digestive tracts

mesoderm

musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, & portions of the reproductive and urinary systems

ectoderm

nervous system, integumentary system (skin, hair, nails), and lining of the nostrils, mouth, & anus

cooperative enzyme

enzyme with multiple active sites that affect one another

ex: hemoglobin

uncompetitive inhibition

the inhibitor only binds allosterically to the ES complex & locks it up, preventing the release of products

noncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds to allosteric site on enzyme, changing its shape & reducing its function

binds equally well to enzyme + ES complex

increasing substrate conc. will not reverse inhibition

mixed inhibition

an inhibitor can bind to an enzyme or ES complex but with different affinity

V_max always lowered

competitive inhibition

inhibitor competes with substrate for enzyme’s active site

allosteric inhibitor

allosteric molecule that inhibits activiy of the enzyme

allosteric activator

allosteric molecule that increases activity of enzyme

low K_M

high affinity, strong complex

high K_M

low affinity, weak complex

high k_cat

rapid catalysis

low k_cat

slow, heavily regulated reactions

triglyceride

3 fatty acids

glycerol

phospholipid

2 fatty acids

phosphate head

glycerol backbone

sphingomyelin

2 fatty acids

sphingosine

charged head group

ceramide

3 fatty acids

sphingosine

negative delta G

exergonic, spontaneous

positive delta G

endergonic, non-spontaneous

pico

10^-12

nano

10^-9

micro

10^-6

milli

10^-3

centi

10^-2

kilo

10³

macro

10⁶

giga

10⁹

myopia

near-sightedness

diverging lens

myopia

hyperopia

far-sightedness

converging lens

hyperopia

FSH

stimulates follicle maturation, spermatogenesis

LH

stimulates ovulation, testosterone synthesis

ACTH

stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids

TSH

stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones

prolactin

stimulates milk production and secretion

endorphins

inhibits the perception of pain in the brain

growth hormone

stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis

oxytocin

stimulates contractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation

ADH, vasopressin

stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys

T3, T4

stimulates metabolic activity

calcitonin

decreases blood calcium level

parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium level

glucocorticoid

increases blood glucose level and decreases protein synthesis

mineralcorticoid

increases sodium and water reabsorption and kidneys

epinephrine, norepinephrine

increases blood glucose level and heart rate and blood pressure

somatostatin

suppress the secretion of glucagon and insulin

testosterone

maintains male secondary sex characteristics

estrogen

maintains female secondary sex characteristics

proestrogen

promote growth/maintenance of endometrium

proximal convoluted tubule

bulk reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, soluble vitamins, salt, and water

site of H⁺, urea, NH₃, and K⁺ (HUNK) secretion

descending loop of Henle

permeable to water but not salt

ascending loop of Henle

permeable to salt but water

distal convoluted tubule

responsive to aldosterone, also a site of waste excretion

collecting duct

responsive to aldosterone and ADH

permeable to water

aldosterone

increases Na+ and water reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule & collecting duct

decreases reabsorption of K+ and H+

maintains initial blood concentration

ADH

increases collecting ducts permeability to water to increase water reabsorption

dilutes blood

I band

only actin filaments

H zone

only myosin filaments

A band

both actin and myosin

remains constant size during contraction

reaction velocity (v)

y-axis of Michaelis-Menten

substration concentration [S]

x-axis of Michaelis-Menten

v_max

max reaction rate at infinite [S]

(where line reaches plateau)

K_m

[S] at half v_max

how much substrate you have to add before getting halfway to the maximum reaction rate (v_max)

effect of competitive inhibitor on Michaelis-Menten

effect of competitive inhibitor on Lineweaver-Burk plot

y-intercept stays the same

x-intercept shifts right

effect of uncompetitive inhibitor on Michaelis-Menten

lowers plateau but more hyperbolic (sharper curve)

effect of uncompetitive inhibitor on Lineweaver-Burk plot

parallel line but more left and higher up

effect of non-competitive inhibitor on Michaelis Menten

lower plateau

effect of non-competitive inhibitor on Lineweaver-Burk plot

same x-intercept

y-intercept shifts up

effect of mixed inhibitor on Michaelis-Menten

lower plateau

effect of mixed inhibitor on Lineweaver-Burk plot

y-intercept shifts up but Km might increase or decrease so idk

CT scan

provides images of the structure of the brain & body

PET scan

provides images of the structure and activity of the brain & body (with radiation)

MRI

provides images of the structure of the brain & body (no radiation)

fMRI

provides images of the structure and activity of the brain

private conformity

changing behaviors & opinions to align with a group (genuinely believing)

public conformity

when you outwardly change beliefs but internally maintain your core beliefs

unconditioned stimulus

elicits unconditioned response

(meat)

positive reinforcement

something added to increase tendency of behavior

positive punishment

something added to decrease tendency of behavior

negative reinforcement

something taken away to increase tendency of a behavior

negative punishment

something taken away to decrease tendency of behavior

fixed ratio

reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses

fixed interval

reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time

variable ratio

reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses has occured

variable interval

reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time

uncompetitive inhibitor effect

both the K_M and the V_max decrease

competitive inhibitor effect

v_max stays the same, K_M increases

noncompetitive inhibitor effect

v_max decreases, K_M stays the same

mixed inhibitor effects

alters K_M, v_max decreases

y-intercept of Lineweaver Burke plot

1/v_max

x-intercept of Lineweaver Burke plot

1/K_M

K_M

concentration at which half the enzyme’s active sites are in use and the velocity of the reaction is half of the V_max

red wavelength

740-625

orange wavelength

625-590

yellow wavelength

590-565

green wavelength

565-520

light blue wavelength

520-500