AP Psychology (BFW): Modules 4.1-4.2

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s stable, enduring traits

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes, which contributes to fundamental attribution error

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude towards a group and its members, usually involving negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people, may sometimes be accurate

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

implicit prejudice

the most common form, knee-jerk and unintentional

unconscious patronization

a potential second-standard for minorities, often not holding them to the same benchmark

colorism (ethnic prejudice)

discrimination based on skin tone only

criminal stereotypes (ethnic prejudice)

harsher judgement when one commits crimes in line with a stereotype

medical care (ethnic prejudice)

health professionals spend more money on treating white patients

work and pay (gender prejudice)

men are usually paid more than women

leadership (gender prejudice)

gender prejudice leads to a lack of female leadership

perceived intelligence (gender prejudice)

individuals tend to perceive their fathers and sons as more intelligent than their mothers and daughters

masculine norms (gender prejudice)

masculine ideas, values, and interaction styles are held in high respect in much of culture, often focusing on independence and assertive interactions

sex-selective abortions (gender prejudice)

in India and China, there are 112 and 111 male babies for every 100 females babies, respectively

social attitudes (LGBTQ prejudice)

many LGBTQ report harassment, rejection, and being subject to jokes

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

social identity

the part of your identity that comes from group membership

ingroup

someone whom you share a common identity with

outgroup

someone who is not in the ingroup

ingroup bias

a preference of the ingroup, even if randomly decided

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame, supported by increased prejudice during economic frustrations and downturns

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races, also known as the cross-race effect or the own-race bias, and caused by outgroup homogeneity overgeneralization, we also have an own-age bias

ethnocentrism

a tendency to see one’s ethnic or racial group as superior

remembering vivid cases

availability heuristics allow vivid cases of situations to ruminate in peoples’ minds

victim blaming

caused by hindsight bias, leads people to say that if something bad occurred, certainly the victim had it coming, which helps people’s perception of their own safety

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

attitudes and actions

attitudes affect actions and action affect attitudes

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face effect

a tendency where after a larger request, a more minor one will be approved

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave, and people adapt to their roles, starting as actors and turning into members

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent, such as when attitudes or actions clash, so you change your actions

persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions

elaboration likelihood model

when we actively process a message and mentally elaborate on it, we retain it more often

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness (halo effect)

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments, usually used by more analytical and involved people

how to be persuasive

(how to be persuasive) do: identify shared values and goals, appeal to others’ yearnings (such as nostalgia for conservatives and future for liberals), make a vivid message, repeat the message, and engage the audience. do not: humiliate people, loudly argue, or bore people