Unit 0 Science Practices and Research Methods

Flashcards for AP Psychology Exam Review

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle that research participants' data and identities should be kept private and not disclosed without consent.

Social desirability Bias

The tendency of participants to respond in a manner that they perceive will be viewed favorably by others, often leading to inaccurate self-reports.

Non-Experimental Methodology

A research approach that does not involve manipulation of variables, focusing instead on observing and measuring existing relationships.

Experimental Methodology

A research method that involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on another variable, often through controlled experiments.

Representative Sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger group. This type of sample is essential for generalizing research findings to the broader population.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling method where participants are selected based on their easy availability and proximity to the researcher, often leading to biased results.

Population

The entire group of individuals or instances that researchers are interested in studying, from which a sample may be drawn.

Sample

A subset of the population selected for participation in a research study, used to make inferences about the larger group.

Experimenter Bias

The influence of a researcher's expectations or preferences on the outcome of an experiment, often leading to unintentional skewing of results.

Self report Bias

A type of bias where participants' responses can be skewed due to their own perceptions or misinterpretations of their thoughts and feelings, often affecting the accuracy of the data collected.

Protect from harm

An ethical guideline in research ensuring that participants are not subjected to physical or psychological harm.

Experimenter Bias

The tendency for researchers to unconsciously influence the outcome of an experiment based on their expectations or beliefs.

Informed Assent

The process by which individuals, often minors, agree to participate in research after being appropriately informed about its purpose, risks, and procedures.

Single Blind procedure

A research design where participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

Research Confederates

Are individuals who are part of a study but pose as regular participants, helping to manipulate the social situation or experiment.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature of a study and its findings after their involvement, often to ensure ethical standards.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Peer Reviewers

are experts who evaluate the quality and validity of research before publication. This process ensures that the research meets the standards of the field and is free from significant bias.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis where it can be proven false through evidence or experimentation.

Replication

is the process of repeating a study to confirm the results and ensure reliability.

operational definition

A clear, precise specification of how a concept will be measured or defined in a study.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Meta-Analysis

A procedure for statistically synthesizing a body of scientific evidence

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment.

Independent Variable(s)

The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable(s)

The outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Double-Blind Procedure

Experimental procedure in which both the research participant and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Confounding Variable

A variable other than the independent variable that could produce a change in the dependent variable.

Quantitative Research

Research that relies primarily on numerical data and statistical analysis to draw conclusions.

Qualitative Research

Research that relies primarily on descriptive data and interpretive analysis.

Informed Consent

An individual’s voluntary agreement to participate in research, based on an understanding of the study’s purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Percentile Rank

The percent of scores in a distribution at or below a particular score.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Effect size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon, often used to indicate the strength of a relationship between variables in research.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that a result will happen by chance.